Carbonyl erastin analogs and their use

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides, inter alia, compounds having the structure of formula (I): Compositions containing such compounds are also provided. Methods for using such compounds or compositions for treating or ameliorating the effects of a cancer having a cell that harbors an oncogenic RAS mutation, for modulating a lipoxygenase in a ferroptosis cell death pathway, and for depleting reduced glutathione (GSH) in a cell harboring an oncogenic RAS mutation are further provided.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 61/927,601, filed Jan. 15, 2014, and 62/059,080, filed Oct. 2, 2014, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

GOVERNMENT FUNDING

This invention was made with government support under grant no. CA097061 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The present invention provides, inter alia, carbonyl erastin analogs and compositions containing such compounds. Methods for using such compounds or compositions are also provided.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Synthetic lethality describes a genetic interaction in which simultaneous mutations in two genes lead to synergistic cell death compared to individual mutations in the same genes (Kaelin, 2005; Yang et al., 2008a). The concept of synthetic lethality was originally used to study the buffering capacity of cells and organisms upon genetic variations, through which many gene-gene interactions have been discovered in multiple organisms, including bacteria, yeasts, and nematodes (Dixon et al., 2009; Malumbres, 2003). Soon after, it was recognized that this concept can be used as a framework for discovering anti-cancer drug leads with high therapeutic indices (Kaelin, 2005; Hartwell, 1997): one can search for small molecules that are only lethal in the presence of a specific oncogenic mutation.

Oncogenic RAS proteins have been targeted using this synthetic lethal screening approach, due to the widespread importance of mutant RAS proteins in the genesis and maintenance of human cancers (Malumbres et al., 2003), as well as the challenge of targeting oncogenic RAS proteins directly (Downward, 2003). Several synthetic lethal screens using RNA-interference-based (RNAi) libraries reported genes with synthetic lethal relationships with KRAS, such as PLK1 (Luo et al., 2009), TBK1 (Barbie et al., 2009), STK33 (Scholl et al., 2009), and GATA2 (Kumar et al., 2012). Some of these results may require further verification, because some follow-up studies did not support the originally postulated roles (Babij et al., 2011; Luo et al., 2012). The mechanism of synthetic lethality was attributed to increased dependence on mitotic function, NF-κB signaling, S6 kinase activity, and the GATA2 transcriptional network, respectively. The specific death-initiating mechanisms were different in these cases; however, cancer cells with oncogenic RAS mutations invariably died via apoptosis upon treatment with these RNAi reagents.

A different approach to targeting oncogenic RAS uses synthetic lethal screening with small molecules. Several RAS-synthetic-lethal (RSL) compounds were identified using this strategy (Yang et al., 2009; Yagoda et al., 2007; Weiwer et al., 2012; Shaw et al., 2011; Ji et al., 2009). The lethality of these RSL compounds, such as erastin and RSL3, was significantly enhanced upon activation of RAS-RAF-MEK signaling. In contrast to the results of RNAi screens, the small molecule approach yielded compounds that induced a distinct form of oxidative, non-apoptotic cell death. This mode of cell death was distinct from necrosis, and is a regulated form of oxidative cell death termed ferroptosis due to its unique morphology, inhibitor sensitivity and strict dependency on iron (Dixon et al., 2012). Thus, ferroptosis may be an efficient means of inducing synthetic lethality with small molecules in tumor cells harboring oncogenic RAS proteins. Defining the molecular pathways governing ferroptosis could aid in targeting RAS mutant tumors.

To define the core effectors of ferroptosis, erastin and RSL3 were further investigated, because both of these RSL compounds induce ferroptotic cell death via different triggering mechanisms. Erastin binds to VDAC2/3 (Yagoda et al., 2007), and inhibits system xc⁻ (Dixon et al., 2012) to induce ferroptotic cell death. In contrast, RSL3 is not dependent on these proteins (Yang et al., 2008a), and its target has not been reported. Metabolomic profiling was used to evaluate comprehensively changes in metabolism upon erastin treatment, and it was found that a common lipoxygenase-mediated pathway executing ferroptotic cell death in response to RSL compounds.

RAS genes are among the most commonly mutated in human cancers, but their protein products have remained intractable to therapeutic agents. Thus, there is a need for, inter alia, anti-cancer drugs with high therapeutic indices that selectively target tumor cells, such as those harboring oncogenic RAS mutations. The present invention is directed to meeting these and other needs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

One embodiment of the present invention is a compound according to formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a pharmaceutical composition. This pharmaceutical composition comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent and a compound according to formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

An additional embodiment of the present invention is a method for treating or ameliorating the effects of a cancer comprising a cell that harbors an oncogenic RAS mutation. This method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of any compound or pharmaceutical composition of the present invention.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a method for modulating a lipoxygenase in a ferroptosis cell death pathway. This method comprises contacting a cell with an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a method for depleting reduced glutathione (GSH) in a cell harboring an oncogenic RAS mutation. This method comprises administering to the cell an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

An additional embodiment of the present invention is a method of inhibiting system xc⁻ in a subject in need thereof. This method comprises administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

A further embodiment of the present invention is a method of selectively killing a cell having a Ras^(v12) mutation. This method comprises contacting the cell with an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;

R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; and

-   -   R₃ is a halo atom;     -   or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a kit. This kit comprises any compound or pharmaceutical composition according to the present invention together with instructions for the use of the compound.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

FIG. 1 shows that metabolite profiling revealed cellular glutathione (GSH) depletion as the most significant change upon erastin treatment.

FIG. 1a is a graph showing the fold changes in metabolites upon erastin treatment. 264 metabolites from HT-1080 cells were analyzed.

FIG. 1b are graphs showing dose-dependent depletion of GSH by erastin in HT-1080 cells and U-2 OS cells. Data are presented as mean ±standard deviation (s.d.); n=3.

FIG. 1c is a plot showing GSH depletion by various erastin analogs. HT-1080 cells were incubated with 10 μM of erastin analogs for 5 hours or 100 μM buthioninesulfoximine (BSO) for 12 hours before measurement of GSH concentration. GSH in each sample was first normalized to the DMSO sample, then box-and-whisker plots were generated (n=3-8). Mid-line, median; box, 25th to 75th percentiles; and whiskers, minimum and maximum. **, P<0.01, with respect to PYR-ERA; ***, P<0.001.

FIG. 1d shows light microscopy images (top panel) and a growth inhibition plot (bottom panel) demonstrating that BSO induces the RSL phenotype. BJeLR and DRD are cells expressing HRAS^(G12V), whereas BJeH and BJeHLT are isogenic counterparts lacking HRAS^(G12V). Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3. Scale bars, 60 μm.

FIG. 1e is a plot showing that Erastin and BSO induced the RSL phenotype through a similar mechanism. The pattern of cell death inhibition was similar between erastin and BSO. The name of cell death inhibitors and the treatment condition is listed in Table 1 below.

TABLE 1 Name and treatment condition of cell death inhibitors used in Fig. 1e. Concentration, Abbr. Inhibitor Target μM 3-MA 3-methyladenine formation of 1000 preautophagosome zVAD z-VAD-fmk caspases 50 Baf Bafilomycin A1 autophagosome- 1 lysosome fusion CspA Cyclosporin A cyclophilin D 5 E64D E64D calpains/cathepsins 100 ALLN ALLN calpains 2.5 Nec Necrostatin-1 RIP1 kinase 10 Chq Chloroquine autophagosome- 10 lysosome fusion Vit. E Vitamin E lipophilic antioxidant 100 U0126 U0126 MEK inhibitor 10 CycH Cycloheximide Translation elongation 1.5 DFOM Deferoxamine iron chelator 100

FIG. 2 shows that selective activation of lipoxygenases is responsible for the RSL phenotype of erastin.

FIG. 2a is a graph showing various basal ROS levels among BJ-derived cell lines, which were compared using H₂DCF, a ROS detection dye, and flow cytometric analysis. The horizontal lines indicate the mean of normalized ROS levels; n=8; *, P<0.05.

FIG. 2b is a series of bar graphs showing the results of experiments in which antioxidant-targeting compounds were tested in four BJ-derived cells to determine whether they exhibited an RSL phenotype. The graphs indicate growth inhibition in the 4 BJ-derived cell lines at two different concentrations (2×GI₅₀ and 4×GI₅₀ for each compound in BJeLR cells). Bar graph: mean ±s.d.; n=3; n.s., not significant; ***, P<0.001.

FIG. 2c is a graph showing that erastin depletes cellular GSH equally in the 4 BJ-derived cell lines. Cells were treated with either DMSO or erastin for 12 hours followed by GSH quantification as described in Example 1 below. ***, P<0.001.

FIG. 2d shows a panel of microscopy images and a graph demonstrating that GFP-ALOX5 translocated to the nuclear membrane only in BJeLR cells upon 10 μM erastin treatment. Bar graph: mean +s.d.; n=3-4; ***, P<0.001. Scale bars, 60 μm.

FIG. 2e shows a series of time course microscopy images of GFP-ALOX5 translocation in HT-1080 cells upon treatment with erastin or ionomycin. Scale bars, 60 μm.

FIG. 2f is a series of graphs showing that erastin selectively generated lipid peroxides in BJeLR cells. The respective percentages in each graph indicate the percentage of the cell population that is BODIPY-C11 positive upon 0, 5, and 10 μM erastin treatment for 6 hours.

FIG. 2g is a graph showing that ALOX inhibitors, but not a COX inhibitor, strongly suppressed erastin-induced cell death. Five different ALOX inhibitors (CDC, BAI, PD-146176, AA-861, Zileuton) and one COX inhibitor (Indo) were tested for their ability to suppress erastin lethality. The detailed treatment condition is listed in Table 2 below. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3.

TABLE 2 List of ALOX and COX inhibitors used in this study. The indicated concentration was used in the experiment of Fig. 2g and Fig. 3c. Concen- Abbr. Full name tration Vendor Cat# CDC cinnamyl-3,4-dihydroxy- 20 μM Santa sc- a-cyanocinnamate Cruz 200562 BAI Baicalein 10 μM Santa sc- Cruz 200494 PD- PD-146176 5 μM Santa sc- 146176 Cruz 200678 AA-861 AA-861 2 μM Santa sc- Cruz 200570 Zileuton Zileuton 50 μM Santa sc- Cruz 204417 Indo Indomethacin 200 μM Santa I-7378 Cruz

FIG. 3 shows that RSL3-induced ferroptosis activates an ALOX-dependent pathway.

FIG. 3a is a bar graph showing that RSL3 does not deplete GSH. The level of GSH was determined in BJeLR cells after treating with 2 μM RSL3, 10 μM erastin, or 1 mM BSO. Bar graph: mean +s.d.; n=3. *, P<0.05.

FIG. 3b shows microscopy images of GFP-ALOX5 and a bar graph demonstrating that GFP-ALOX5 translocated to the nuclear membrane upon RSL3 treatment (0.4 μM) in BJeLR cells, but not in BJeHLT cells. 0.4 μM RSL3 exhibited selective lethality in BJeLR cells. Bar graph: mean +s.d.; n=6 for BJeHLT, n=7 for BJeLR; ***, P<0.001. Scale bars, 60 μm

FIG. 3c is a graph showing that the lethality of RSL3 was suppressed by ALOX inhibitors, but not by a COX inhibitor, in BJeLR cells. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3.

FIG. 3d are graphs showing that RSL3 treatment generated lipid peroxides in the plasma membrane, as erastin did. The respective percentages in each graph indicate the percentage of BODIPY-C11 positive cell population upon 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4 μM RSL3 treatment.

FIG. 3e is a graph showing that HT-1080 cells transfected with a pool of siRNAs targeting GPX4 showed increased lipid peroxide level as assessed by BODIPY-C11 staining. siNeg has no homology to any known mammalian gene and was used as a negative control.

FIG. 3f shows a series of microscopy images of GFP-ALOX5 and a bar graph demonstrating that GFP-ALOX5 remained within the nucleus when siNeg was transfected; however, GFP-ALOX5 translocated to the nuclear membrane upon siGPX4 transfection. Another control siRNA, called siDeath, did not cause translocation during cell death. Bar graph: mean +s.d.; n=6, 7, 6 for siNeg, siDeath and siGPX4, respectively; n.s., not significant; ***, P<0.001. Scale bars, 60 μm

FIG. 3g is a bar graph showing that known inhibitors of ferroptosis, 10 μM U0126, 100 μM Vit. E, 100 μM DFOM, or 50 μM ZIL, were able to suppress siGPX4-induced cell death. Cell death induced by siDeath could not be suppressed by any known ferroptosis inhibitor. Bar graph: mean ±s.d.; n=3; *, P<0.05; **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001.

FIG. 3h is a bar graph showing that knockdown of GPX4 displayed an RSL phenotype in the four BJ-derived isogenic cell lines. Bar graph: mean ±s.d.; n=3; ***, P<0.001.

FIG. 4 shows that synthetic lethality with oncogenic-RAS occurs through a lipoxygenase-dependent pathway.

FIG. 4a is a graph showing that RSL compounds, but not non-RSL compounds, caused an increase in BODIPY-C11 fluorescence intensity, a measure of lipid peroxidation. Moreover, the lethality of RSL compounds depended on ALOX activity. The degree of cell death rescue by each ALOX inhibitor was calculated as ΔAUC. A larger ΔAUC indicates a greater rescue by the ALOX inhibitor. Capped lines indicates mean ±s.d.; n=10 for RSLs, n=11 for non-RSLs; ***, P<0.001.

FIG. 4b shows a series of microscopy images of GFP-ALOX5 and a bar graph demonstrating that the administration of three structurally different RSL compounds, DPI2, DPI10, and DPI17 translocated GFP-ALOX5 to the nuclear membrane in HT-1080 cells, whereas the administration staurosporine (STS), a non-RSL compound, did not. Ionomycin (IONO) was used as a positive control for translocation. Bar graph presents mean +s.d.; n=4; n.s., not significant; **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001. Scale bars, 60 μm.

FIG. 4c are graphs showing that knockdown of ALOXE3 rescued cells from death induced by 12 RSL compounds, whereas ALOX15B knockdown sensitized cells to RSL compounds in HT-1080 cells. Arrow and arrowhead indicate erastin and RSL3, respectively. The horizontal lines indicate median value of each group; n=10 for non-RSLs, n=12 for RSLs; **, P<0.01; ***, P<0.001.

FIG. 4d shows the structure of piperazine erastin (PE or Compound 30) and a graph demonstrating that PE has improved metabolic stability in comparison to erastin in a mouse liver microsome assay. Midazolam was used as a positive control for metabolic degradation. The structure of PE is shown on the left. Each data point is a mean of duplicates.

FIG. 4e is a graph showing modulatory profiling (Wolpaw et al., 2011) with PE, erastin, and other lethal molecules. This graph confirmed that PE induced a similar form of cell death as erastin in HT-1080 cells. ΔAUC with a positive sign indicates suppression of cell death, whereas a negative sign indicates sensitization by cell death modulators upon lethal compound treatment. Detailed treatment conditions are shown in Tables 3 and 4 below.

TABLE 3 The table shows the lethal compounds used in the modulatory profiling of Fig. 4e. Highest conc. in 14-point, 2-fold dilution Abbreviation Full name Mechanism series (μM) 9-AA 9-Aminoacridine DNA intercalating 50 agent CAN Cantharidin Protein phosphatase 200 inhibitor CAM Camptothecin Topoisomerase I 1 inhibitor COL Colchicine Microtubule 0.6 depolymerizing agent CCD Cytochalasin D Binds to actin 10 and inhibits cytoskeletal function DIG Digoxin Inhibits Na/K 6.4 ATPase pump ECH Echinomycin DNA intercalating 0.002 agent EMT Emetine Inhibits protein 0.4 synthesis ETO Etoposide Topoisomerase 120 II inhibitor PAO Phenylarsine Metabolic poison, 0.1 oxide protein phosphatase inhibitor STS Staurosporine Protein kinase 1 inhibitor DPI2 — unknown 22.34 DPI10 — unknown 23 ERA Erastin Targeting 18 VDAC and system xc⁻ PE Piperizine Targeting 8 erastin VDAC and system xc⁻

TABLE 4 The table shows the cell death modulators used in the modulatory profiling of Fig. 4e. Concen- Abbrevi- tration ation Full name Mechanism (μM) CspA Cyclosporine A Targets CypD 5 ALLN ALLN Inhibits calpains 2.5 Boc-D Boc-D-fluoromethylketone Inhibits caspases 50 z-VAD z-VAD-fluoromethylketone Inhibits caspases 50 L-NAME L-NG-Nitroarginine Inhibits nitric oxide 300 methyl ester synthase Gd3+ Gadolinium Calcium channel 656 blocker NMMA NG-Methyl-L-arginine Inhibits nitric oxide 250 acetate synthase NAD+ beta-Nicotinamide Inhibits sirtuin 2000 adenine dinucleotide ATA aurintricarboxylic acid Topoisomerase II 38 inhibitor ActD Actinomycin D Transcription 0.016 inhibitor 3-MA 3-methyladenine Inhibits 1000 pre-autophagosome CycH Cycloheximide Translation 1.5 elongation inhibitor Nec-1 Necrostatin-1 Inhibits RIP1 kinase 10 Vit. E Vitamine E Lipophilic 100 antioxidant DFOM Deferoxamine Iron chelator 100 U0126 U0126 MEK inhibitor 10 EGTA EGTA Calcium chelator 2000 DPQ DPQ PARP inhibitor 10 Co2+ Cobalt chloride Calcium channel 656 blocker TLCK — Serine protease 100 inhibitor BHT Butylated Antioxidant 400 hydroxytoluene TRO Trolox Antioxidant 100 L−MIM L-Mimosine Cell cycle inhibitor/ 200 iron chelator GSH reduced glutathione Antioxidant 2000 BAI Baicalein Inhibits 10 lipoxygenase ZIL Zileuton Inhibits 50 lipoxygenase DPI NOX inhibitor1 NOX inhibitor 5 GTK GTK137831 NOX inhibitor 20 CPX Ciclopirox olamine Lipophilic iron 5 chelator Ebs Ebselen Glutathion 5 peroxidase mimetic

FIG. 4f are photographs and plots showing that PE (Compound 30) has improved efficacy over erastinin (ERA) in preventing HT-1080 tumor formation in a mouse xenograft model. The images show representative tumors in live mice from each treatment group. The horizontal lines in the graphs indicate the mean value of tumor size in each group; n=7 in erastin testing; n=10 in PE testing; *, P<0.05.

FIG. 4g is a scheme showing a proposed molecular pathway enabling RAS-synthetic-lethality and ferroptotic cell death by the RSL compounds; lof: loss of function, gof: gain of function.

FIGS. 5a-c are graphs showing that lysophosphatidyl choline (Lyso-PC) contributes to the lethality of erastin but does not account for the selectivity toward oncogenic-RAS-expressing cells. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3; **, P<0.01. Cell viability was determined using alamar blue after 24 hours of incubation with indicated compound. In FIG. 5a , HT-1080 cells were incubated with the indicated amount of Lyso-PC. In FIG. 5b , Erastin was added to HT-1080 cells in a 2-fold dilution series in the presence or absence of lyso-PC. In FIG. 5c , BJeH (wild type HRAS) or BJeLR (HRAS_(G12V)) cells were treated with lyso-PC.

FIGS. 5d-g are graphs showing that GSH depletion is a functionally important biochemical change in erastin-induced cell death. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3; **, P<0.01. In FIGS. 5e -g, cell viability was determined using alamar blue after 24 hours of incubation with indicated compound. In FIG. 5d , Erastin was added to BJeLR cells for 24 hours. The cellular GSH level in each sample was determined as set forth in Example 1. FIG. 5e shows that GSH depletion by erastin sensitized cells to TBHP-induced oxidative stress in U-2 OS cells. FIG. 5f shows that supplementation with N-acetyl cystein (NAC), a GSH precursor, rescued U-2 OS cells from cell death by erastin. In FIG. 5g , HT-1080 cells were treated with erastin in the presence or absence of 1 mM GSH for 24 hours.

FIG. 6 shows testing of compounds targeting cellular antioxidant systems in the four BJ-derived cell lines. FIG. 6a shows a series of growth inhibition curves of antioxidant inhibitors in the 4 cell lines. FIG. 6b is a table listing the compounds used in the 4 BJ-derived cell line testing of FIG. 6a with the target information. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3.

FIG. 7 shows a series of microscopy images and a graph demonstrating that GFP-ALOX5 translocated to the perinuclear membrane region upon ionomycin treatment. GPF-ALOX5 remained within the nucleus when expressed in BJeH, BJeHLT, and BJeLR cells (upper panel), but translocated to the perinuclear membrane region upon ionomycin treatment (lower panel). Unlike erastin-induced translocation (FIG. 2d ), all three BJ cell lines responded equally to ionomycin treatment. BJ cells were treated with 113 μM ionomycin for 12 hours. Bar graph; n=3-4, n.s.=not significant. Scale bar=60 μm.

FIG. 8a shows a series of graphs demonstrating that erastin and RSL3 share a common dependency on iron, MEK, and reactive oxygen species. FIG. 8b shows a series of graphs demonstrating that erastin and RSL3 exhibited different responses to other cell death inhibitors. BJeLR cells were treated with erastin or RSL3 in the presence or absence of the indicated inhibitors for 24 hours followed by viability determination using alamar blue dye. DFOM: Deferoxamine, Vit. E: Vitamine E, Co²⁺: CoCl₂, TLCK: serine protease inhibitor, CHX: Cycloheximide, NAC: N-acetylcystein. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3.

FIG. 9 shows the effect of siGPX4 on cell viability and GPX4 mRNA level. In FIG. 9a , HT-1080 cells were transfected with 6.4 nM siGPX4 for 4 days, and cell viability was determined by ViCell. FIG. 9b is a graph showing that a qPCR experiment confirmed the reduction of GPX4 expression in HT-1080 cells transfected with siGPX4. FIG. 9c is a series of graphs showing the confirmation of GPX4 knockdown by the siRNA pool using qPCR analysis in 4 BJ-derived cell lines. Comparative analysis was carried out using ACTB (human actin B) gene as an endogenous control. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3.

FIG. 10a shows the structure of certain RSL compounds discovered from a high throughput screening campaign of greater than 1 million compounds with the four BJ-derived cell lines. Of those compounds, 80,497 were purchased and synthesized in the inventors' laboratory, 303,282 compounds were obtained through the Molecular Libraries Probe Production Centers Network (MLPCN), and 658,301 compounds were made in collaboration with the Genomics Institute of the Novartis Research Foundation (GNF). Structure of erastin, RSL3, DPI7, and DPI10, were known previously.

FIG. 10b shows a series of graphs demonstrating that the RSL phenotype of 14 compounds (as indicated) was confirmed in the 4-BJ cell system. The RSL compounds demonstrate increased potency in two cell lines with oncogenic-RAS (BJeLR and DRD) compared to two cell lines without oncogenic-RAS (BJeH and BJeHLT). Cells were incubated with each compound for 2 days followed by viability determination using alamar blue. The line shows mean of duplicate data points.

FIG. 10c is a graph showing the fourteen RSL compounds from FIG. 10b clustered based on 2-dimensional (2-D) structure similarity and their respective potency and selectivity. The Tanimoto equation was used to compute the degree of similarity. The Tanimoto score is a fraction between 0 and 1 where 0 means no similarity and 1 means identical. The inventors considered that compounds clustered with >0.85 Tanimoto similarity as a single group, which resulted in the characterization of 12 different groups.

FIG. 11a shows a series of graphs demonstrating that ten additional RSL compounds were tested and were found to generate lipid peroxides. The indicated RSL compounds were added to BJeLR cells at 10 μM for 6 hours (or 12 hours for DPI2) to induce cell death. FIG. 11b shows a series of graphs demonstrating that eleven diverse non-RSL compounds were tested for lipid peroxide generation in BJeLR cells. Only phenylarsine oxide (PAO) showed weak generation of lipid peroxides, whereas all the other lethal compounds did not show any lipid peroxide generation. The indicated lethal compounds were administered to BJeLR cells to induce cell death according to the conditions shown in FIG. 11c . After cell death was initiated, cells were stained with BODIPY-C11 (581/591) and subjected to flow cytometric analysis to assess the level of lipid peroxidation. The number in each graph indicates percentage of BODIPY-C11 stain positive cells out of parental cell population. FIG. 11c is a table showing treatment conditions for the non-RSL compounds used in FIG. 4a and FIG. 11 a.

FIG. 12a shows a series of graphs demonstrating that ALOX inhibitors prevented cell death by all RSL compounds. Data points represent mean of duplicates. FIG. 12b show a series of graphs demonstrating that ALOX inhibitors did not rescue cell death induced by 11 diverse non-RSL compounds. HT-1080 cells were seeded in 384-well plates, treated with the indicated amount of compounds with or without 10 μM of BAI or 50 μM of ZIL for 24 hours. The percent growth inhibition was determined using alamar blue. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3.

FIG. 13a shows a series of micrographs demonstrating that RSL compounds induced translocation of GFP-ALOX5 to the perinuclear membrane region, whereas non-RSL lethal compounds did not. HT-1080 cells stably expressing GFPALOX5 were treated with the indicated compounds under the conditions detailed in FIG. 13b . Under these conditions, cells were dying or dead (see the last photo of DMSO sample which shows untreated cells). Note that digioxin (DIG) did translocate GFP-ALOX5 to the perinuclear membrane region in a small portion of the cell population (arrow). Digioxin is known to increase cellular calcium concentration that can translocate GFP-ALOX5, similarly to ionomycin. Scale bars, 60 μm.

FIG. 13b is a table showing treatment conditions used in FIG. 4b and FIG. 13 a.

FIG. 13c shows a series of microscopy images demonstrating that a few digoxin treated cells showed translocation but not selectively in three BJeLR cell lines (arrow). Scale bars=100 μm. Cells were treated with 10 μM digoxin for 12 hours.

FIG. 14a shows a series of graphs demonstrating the expression analysis of ALOX genes in BJeLR and HT-1080 cells. The graphs show the amplification plot of each ALOX isoform. Triplicate samples were analyzed for each gene using mRNA from either cell line. ACTB gene amplification was served as endogenous control. The gene name and the Ct (cycle of threshold) number are presented. N.D.=not determined. Ct value of greater than 35 is considered weak expression, which suggests that ALOXE3 is the major isoform expressed in these cell lines.

FIG. 14b shows two graphs demonstrating that the knockdown of ALOX15B and ALOXE3 expression by a pool of siRNAs was confirmed using qPCR analysis. Data are presented as mean ±s.d.; n=3.

FIG. 15 shows modulation of RSL-induced cell death (FIG. 15a ) or non-RSL-induced cell death (FIG. 15b ) by knockdown of ALOX15B or ALOXE3. HT-1080 cells were transfected with siRNA pools targeting either ALOX15B or ALOXE3, and then, treated with the indicated RSL compounds in 2-fold dilution series. 24 hours after compound treatment, alamar blue was added to the culture at a final concentration of 10% in growth media to determine cell viability. The percent growth inhibition was calculated from the fluorescence intensity of each well in 384-well assay plates. Data points represent mean of duplicates.

FIGS. 16a-i show the concentration-dependent curves of various erastin analogs, which were tested in 4 isogenic cell lines: HRAS^(G12V) overexpressing artificially transformed fibroblasts (BJeLR, BJeDRD) and non-transformed isogenic cells without mutant HRAS expression (BJeHLT, BJeH).

FIGS. 17a -e show the concentration-dependent curves of various erastin analogs, which were tested in HT1080, a human fibrosarcoma cell line.

FIG. 18 shows the metabolic stability of various erastin analogs in mouse liver microsomes.

FIG. 19a shows the effect of IKE on tumor xenografts. N=6 or 7, eight week old nude mice with an average tumor size of about 60 mm³ received 7 doses of IKE at 50 mg/kg (I.P.), 4 doses of doxorubicin (I.V.), or 7 doses of vehicle (I.P.). *p=0.035 of IKE compared to vehicle treated.

FIG. 19b shows expression levels of PTGS2 and CDKN1A by qPCR.

FIG. 20 shows that no overt toxicity was observed in either IKE or doxorubicin-treated mice throughout the study; as gauged by monitoring body weight.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

One embodiment of the present invention is a compound according to formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

The term “aliphatic”, as used herein, refers to a group composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms that do not contain aromatic rings. Accordingly, aliphatic groups include alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, and carbocyclyl groups. Additionally, unless otherwise indicated, the term “aliphatic” is intended to include both “unsubstituted aliphatics” and “substituted aliphatics”, the latter of which refers to aliphatic moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the aliphatic group. Such substituents can include, for example, a halogen, a deuterium, a hydroxyl, a carbonyl (such as a carboxyl, an alkoxycarbonyl, a formyl, or an acyl), a thiocarbonyl (such as a thioester, a thioacetate, or a thioformate), an alkoxyl, a phosphoryl, a phosphate, a phosphonate, a phosphinate, an amino, an amido, an amidine, an imine, a cyano, a nitro, an azido, a sulfhydryl, an alkylthio, a sulfate, a sulfonate, a sulfamoyl, a sulfonamido, a sulfonyl, a heterocyclyl, an aralkyl, an aromatic, or heteroaromatic moiety.

The term “alkyl” refers to the radical of saturated aliphatic groups that does not have a ring structure, including straight-chain alkyl groups, and branched-chain alkyl groups. In certain embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkyl has 6 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C₁-C₆ for straight chains, C₃-C₆ for branched chains). Such substituents include all those contemplated for aliphatic groups, except where stability is prohibitive.

Moreover, unless otherwise indicated, the term “alkyl” as used throughout the specification, examples, and claims is intended to include both “unsubstituted alkyls” and “substituted alkyls”, the latter of which refers to alkyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the hydrocarbon backbone. Indeed, unless otherwise indicated, all groups recited herein are intended to include both substituted and unsubstituted options.

The term “alkenyl”, as used herein, refers to an aliphatic group containing at least one double bond and unless otherwise indicated, is intended to include both “unsubstituted alkenyls” and “substituted alkenyls”, the latter of which refers to alkenyl moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the alkenyl group. Such substituents include all those contemplated for aliphatic groups, as discussed below, except where stability is prohibitive. For example, substitution of alkenyl groups by one or more alkyl, carbocyclyl, aryl, heterocyclyl, or heteroaryl groups is contemplated.

The term “C_(x-y)” when used in conjunction with a chemical moiety, such as, alkyl and cycloalkyl, is meant to include groups that contain from x to y carbons in the chain. For example, the term “C_(x-y)alkyl” refers to substituted or unsubstituted saturated hydrocarbon groups, including straight-chain alkyl and branched-chain alkyl groups that contain from x to y carbons in the chain, including haloalkyl groups such as trifluoromethyl and 2,2,2-tirfluoroethyl, etc.

The terms “amine” and “amino” are art-recognized and refer to both unsubstituted and substituted amines and salts thereof, e.g., a moiety that can be represented by

wherein R⁷, R⁸, and R⁸′ each independently represent a hydrogen or a hydrocarbyl group, or R⁷ and R⁸ taken together with the N atom to which they are attached complete a heterocycle having from 4 to 8 atoms in the ring structure. The term “primary” amine means only one of R⁷ and R⁸ or one of R⁷, R⁸, and R⁸′ is a hydrocarbyl group. Secondary amines have two hydrocarbyl groups bound to N. In tertiary amines, all three groups, R⁷, R⁸, and R⁸′, are replaced by hydrocarbyl groups.

The term “aryl” as used herein includes substituted or unsubstituted single-ring aromatic groups in which each atom of the ring is carbon. Preferably the ring is a 3- to 8-membered ring, more preferably a 6-membered ring. The term “aryl” also includes polycyclic ring systems having two or more cyclic rings in which two or more carbons are common to two adjoining rings wherein at least one of the rings is aromatic, e.g., the other cyclic rings can be cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, aryls, heteroaryls, and/or heterocyclyls. Aryl groups include benzene, naphthalene, phenanthrene, phenol, aniline, and the like.

The term “alkyl-aryl” refers to an alkyl group substituted with at least one aryl group.

The terms “halo” and “halogen” are used interchangeably herein and mean halogen and include chloro, fluoro, bromo, and iodo.

The term “heterocycle” refers to substituted or unsubstituted non-aromatic ring structures, preferably 3- to 8-membered rings, whose ring structures include at least one heteroatom, preferably one to four heteroatoms, more preferably one or two heteroatoms. The term “heterocycle” also includes polycyclic ring systems having two or more cyclic rings in which two or more carbons are common to two adjoining rings wherein at least one of the rings is heterocyclic, e.g., the other cyclic rings can be cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, aryls, heteroaryls, and/or heterocyclyls. Heterocycle groups include, for example, piperidine, piperazine, pyrrolidine, morpholine, lactones, lactams, and the like.

The term “heteroatom” as used herein means an atom of any element other than carbon or hydrogen. Preferred heteroatoms are nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; more preferably, nitrogen and oxygen.

The term “substituted” refers to moieties having substituents replacing a hydrogen on one or more carbons of the backbone. It will be understood that “substitution” or “substituted with” includes the implicit proviso that such substitution is in accordance with the permitted valence of the substituted atom and the substituent, and that the substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, etc. As used herein, the term “substituted” is contemplated to include all permissible substituents of organic compounds. In a broad aspect, the permissible substituents include acyclic and cyclic, branched and unbranched, carbocyclic and heterocyclic, aromatic and non-aromatic substituents of organic compounds. The permissible substituents can be one or more and the same or different for appropriate organic compounds. For purposes of this invention, the heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any permissible substituents of organic compounds described herein which satisfy the valences of the heteroatoms. Substituents can include any substituents described herein, for example, a halogen, a hydroxyl, a carbonyl (such as a carboxyl, an alkoxycarbonyl, a formyl, or an acyl), a thiocarbonyl (such as a thioester, a thioacetate, or a thioformate), an alkoxyl, a phosphoryl, a phosphate, a phosphonate, a phosphinate, an amino, an amido, an amidine, an imine, a cyano, a nitro, an azido, a sulfhydryl, an alkylthio, a sulfate, a sulfonate, a sulfamoyl, a sulfonamido, a sulfonyl, a heterocyclyl, an aralkyl, or an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that the moieties substituted on the hydrocarbon chain can themselves be substituted, if appropriate.

As set forth previously, unless specifically stated as “unsubstituted,” references to chemical moieties herein are understood to include substituted variants. For example, reference to an “aryl” group or moiety implicitly includes both substituted and unsubstituted variants.

As used herein, an “N-oxide” means a compound containing an N—O bond with three additional hydrogen and/or side chains attached to N, so that there is a positive charge on the nitrogen. The N-oxides of compounds of the present invention may be synthesized by simple oxidation procedures well known to those skilled in the art. For example, the oxidation procedure described by P. Brougham et al. (Synthesis, 1015-1017, 1987), allows the two nitrogen of a piperazine ring to be differentiated, enabling both the N-oxides and N,N′-dioxide to be obtained. Other oxidation procedures are disclosed in, e.g., U.S. Patent Publication No. 20070275977; S. L. Jain, J. K. Joseph, B. Sain, Synlett, 2006, 2661-2663; A. McKillop, D. Kemp, Tetrahedron, 1989, 45, 3299-3306; R. S. Varma, K. P. Naicker, Org. Lett., 1999, 1, 189-191; and N. K. Jana, J. G. Verkade, Org. Lett., 2003, 5, 3787-3790. Thus, the present invention includes these and other well known procedures for making N-oxides, so long as the end product is sufficiently effective as set forth in more detail below.

The term “crystalline form”, as used herein, refers to the crystal structure of a compound. A compound may exist in one or more crystalline forms, which may have different structural, physical, pharmacological, or chemical characteristics. Different crystalline forms may be obtained using variations in nucleation, growth kinetics, agglomeration, and breakage. Nucleation results when the phase-transition energy barrier is overcome, thereby allowing a particle to form from a supersaturated solution. Crystal growth is the enlargement of crystal particles caused by deposition of the chemical compound on an existing surface of the crystal. The relative rate of nucleation and growth determine the size distribution of the crystals that are formed. The thermodynamic driving force for both nucleation and growth is supersaturation, which is defined as the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium. Agglomeration is the formation of larger particles through two or more particles (e.g., crystals) sticking together and forming a larger crystalline structure.

As used herein, a “hydrate” means a compound that contains water molecules in a definite ratio and in which water forms an integral part of the crystalline structure of the compound. Methods of making hydrates are known in the art. For example, some substances spontaneously absorb water from the air to form hydrates. Others may form hydrates upon contact with water. In most cases, however, hydrates are made by changes in temperature or pressure. Additionally, the compounds of the present invention as well as their salts may contain, e.g., when isolated in crystalline form, varying amounts of solvents, such as water. Included within the scope of the invention are, therefore, all hydrates of the compounds and all hydrates of salts of the compounds of the present invention, so long as such hydrates are sufficiently effective as set forth in more detail below.

In one aspect of this embodiment, the compound has the structure of formula (II):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; and     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic;     -   or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

In an additional aspect of this embodiment, the compound has the structure of formula (III):

-   -   wherein R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H,         C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally         substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group         consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated         C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally         substituted with an atom or group selected from the group         consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be         optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl     -   or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

In another aspect of this embodiment, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Preferably, the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof, or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a pharmaceutical composition. This pharmaceutical composition comprises a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent and a compound according to formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

In this embodiment, suitable and preferred compounds are as disclosed herein, including the compounds of formula (II), formula (III), and KE, FKE, TFKE, MKE, MPKE, APKE, PMB-PKE, PKE, and IKE.

An additional embodiment of the present invention is a method for treating or ameliorating the effects of a cancer comprising a cell that harbors an oncogenic RAS mutation. This method comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of any compound or pharmaceutical composition disclosed herein.

As used herein, the terms “treat,” “treating,” “treatment” and grammatical variations thereof mean subjecting an individual subject to a protocol, regimen, process or remedy, in which it is desired to obtain a physiologic response or outcome in that subject, e.g., a patient. In particular, the methods and compositions of the present invention may be used to slow the development of disease symptoms or delay the onset of the disease or condition, or halt or reverse the progression of disease development. However, because every treated subject may not respond to a particular treatment protocol, regimen, process or remedy, treating does not require that the desired physiologic response or outcome be achieved in each and every subject or subject, e.g., patient, population. Accordingly, a given subject or subject, e.g., patient, population may fail to respond or respond inadequately to treatment.

As used herein, the terms “ameliorate”, “ameliorating” and grammatical variations thereof mean to decrease the severity of the symptoms of a disease in a subject.

As used herein, “cancer” means uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that harbor an oncogenic RAS mutation. The present invention includes those cancers selected from the following group that have one or more cells that harbor an oncogenic RAS mutation: adrenocortical carcinoma, anal cancer, bladder cancer, bone cancer, brain tumor, breast cancer, carcinoid tumor, carcinoma, cervical cancer, colon cancer, endometrial cancer, esophageal cancer, extrahepatic bile duct cancer, Ewing family of tumors, extracranial germ cell tumor, eye cancer, gallbladder cancer, gastric cancer, germ cell tumor, gestational trophoblastic tumor, head and neck cancer, hypopharyngeal cancer, islet cell carcinoma, kidney cancer, laryngeal cancer, leukemia, lip and oral cavity cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, malignant mesothelioma, Merkel cell carcinoma, mycosis fungoides, myelodysplastic syndrome, myeloproliferative disorders, nasopharyngeal cancer, neuroblastoma, oral cancer, oropharyngeal cancer, osteosarcoma, ovarian epithelial cancer, ovarian germ cell tumor, pancreatic cancer, paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer, parathyroid cancer, penile cancer, pituitary cancer, plasma cell neoplasm, prostate cancer, rhabdomyosarcoma, rectal cancer, renal cell cancer, transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter, salivary gland cancer, Sezary syndrome, skin cancer (such as cutaneous t-cell lymphoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, and melanoma), small intestine cancer, soft tissue sarcoma, stomach cancer, testicular cancer, thymoma, thyroid cancer, urethral cancer, uterine cancer, vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer, Wilms' tumor. Preferably, the cancer is a sarcoma.

As used herein, an “oncogenic RAS mutation” means a cellular change that results in the abnormal activation of any of the RAS family of genes (such as, e.g., H-RAS, K-RAS 4A, K-RAS 4B, M-RAS, N-RAS and R-RAS). RAS serves as a molecular switch in a large network of signaling pathways in cells. It cycles between the GDP-bound inactive form and the GTP-bound active form. Mutations in RAS have been found in about 30% of all human cancers. For example, various mutations, such as point mutations corresponding to amino acid numbers 12, 13, 59, 60 of H-RAS, may lead to impaired GTPase activity, resulting in inappropriate activation of RAS, such as constitutively activation of RAS.

As used herein, a “subject” is a mammal, preferably, a human. In addition to humans, categories of mammals within the scope of the present invention include, for example, agricultural animals, veterinary animals, laboratory animals, etc. Some examples of agricultural animals include cows, pigs, horses, goats, etc. Some examples of veterinary animals include dogs, cats, etc. Some examples of laboratory animals include rats, mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, etc.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a method for modulating a lipoxygenase in a ferroptosis cell death pathway. This method comprises contacting a cell with an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

As used herein, the terms “modulate”, “modulating” and grammatical variations thereof mean to change, such as increasing the activity or expression of lipoxygenase. A “lipoxygenase” means an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids with oxygen to form peroxides of the fatty acids. Lipoxygenases according to the present invention include those polypeptides encoded by the ALOX genes, including ALOX5, ALOX12, ALOX12B, ALOX15, ALOX15B, and ALOXE3. Preferably, the ALOX gene is the ALOXE3 gene as set forth in more detail below.

As used herein, “ferroptosis” means regulated cell death that is iron-dependent. Ferroptosis is characterized by the overwhelming, iron-dependent accumulation of lethal lipid reactive oxygen species. Ferroptosis is distinct from apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy. Assays for ferroptosis are as disclosed, for instance, in Dixon et al., 2012.

As used herein, “contacting” means bringing, e.g., a compound or composition of the present invention into close proximity to, e.g., the cancer cells. This may be accomplished using conventional techniques of drug delivery to mammals or in the in vitro situation by, e.g., providing a compound or composition to a culture media in which the cancer cells are located.

Suitable cells for use in this embodiment may be a mammalian cell, preferably, a human cell. In addition to human cells, categories of mammalian cells within the scope of the present invention include, for example, cells from agricultural animals, veterinary animals, laboratory animals, etc. Examples of each type of these animals are as set forth above.

In this embodiment, suitable and preferred compounds are as disclosed herein, including the compounds of formula (II), formula (III), and KE, FKE, TFKE, MKE, MPKE, APKE, PMB-PKE, PKE, and IKE.

In one aspect of this embodiment, the modulation comprises activation of one or more polypeptides encoded by ALOX genes. As used herein, “ALOX” refers to arachidonate lipoxygenase such as, e.g., those identified above.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a method for depleting reduced glutathione (GSH) in a cell harboring an oncogenic RAS mutation. This method comprises administering to the cell an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;         or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof. In this embodiment, “depleting” means         reducing or decreasing.

Additionally, in this embodiment, suitable and preferred compounds are as disclosed herein, including the compounds of formula (II), formula (III), and KE, FKE, TFKE, MKE, MPKE, APKE, PMB-PKE, PKE, and IKE. Suitable and preferred cells are as set forth above.

An additional embodiment of the present invention is a method of inhibiting system xc⁻ in a subject in need thereof. This method comprises administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;     -   or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

As used herein, “inhibiting system xc⁻” means decreasing the activity of the antiporter which mediate the exchange of extracellular cystine and intracellular glutamate across the cellular plasma membrane.

Additionally, in this embodiment, suitable and preferred compounds are as disclosed herein, including the compounds of formula (II), formula (III), and KE, FKE, TFKE, MKE, MPKE, APKE, PMB-PKE, PKE, and IKE. Suitable and preferred cells are as set forth above.

A further embodiment of the present invention is a method of selectively killing a cell having a Ras^(v12) mutation. This method comprises contacting the cell with an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein:

-   -   R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and         CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with         an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a         halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an         amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or         group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which         C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an         C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl;     -   R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and         C₁₋₆aliphatic; and     -   R₃ is a halo atom;     -   or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically         acceptable salt thereof.

As used herein, a “Ras^(v12) mutation” means a mutation corresponding to amino acid number 12 of H-RAS (see, e.g., Hahn et al., 1999), which may lead to impaired GTPase activity, resulting in inappropriate activation of RAS, such as constitutively activation of RAS.

In this embodiment, suitable and preferred compounds are as disclosed herein, including the compounds of formula (II), formula (III), and KE, FKE, TFKE, MKE, MPKE, APKE, PMB-PKE, PKE, and IKE. Suitable and preferred cells are as set forth above.

Another embodiment of the present invention is a kit. This kit comprises any compound or pharmaceutical composition of the present invention together with instructions for the use of the compound.

The kits may also include suitable storage containers, e.g., ampules, vials, tubes, etc., for compound or pharmaceutical composition of the present invention and other reagents, e.g., buffers, balanced salt solutions, etc., for use in administering the anti-cancer agents to subjects. The compounds or pharmaceutical compositions may be present in the kits in any convenient form, such as, e.g., in a solution or in a powder form. The kits may further include a packaging container.

In the present invention, an “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” of a compound or composition, is an amount of such a compound or composition that is sufficient to effect beneficial or desired results as described herein when administered to a subject or a cell. Effective dosage forms, modes of administration, and dosage amounts may be determined empirically, and making such determinations is within the skill of the art. It is understood by those skilled in the art that the dosage amount will vary with the route of administration, the rate of excretion, the duration of the treatment, the identity of any other drugs being administered, the age, size, and species of the subject, and like factors well known in the arts of, e.g., medicine and veterinary medicine. In general, a suitable dose of a compound or composition according to the invention will be that amount of the compound or composition, which is the lowest dose effective to produce the desired effect with no or minimal side effects. The effective dose of a compound or composition according to the present invention may be administered as two, three, four, five, six or more sub-doses, administered separately at appropriate intervals throughout the day.

A suitable, non-limiting example of a dosage of a compound according to the present invention or a composition comprising such a compound, is from about 1 ng/kg to about 1000 mg/kg, such as from about 1 mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg, including from about 5 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg. Other representative dosages of a compound or a composition of the present invention include about 1 mg/kg, 5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, 15 mg/kg, 20 mg/kg, 25 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg, 35 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg, 45 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, 60 mg/kg, 70 mg/kg, 80 mg/kg, 90 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg, 125 mg/kg, 150 mg/kg, 175 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, 250 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg, 400 mg/kg, 500 mg/kg, 600 mg/kg, 700 mg/kg, 800 mg/kg, 900 mg/kg, or 1000 mg/kg.

As used herein, a “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” means a salt of the compounds of the present invention which are pharmaceutically acceptable, as defined herein, and which possess the desired pharmacological activity. Such salts include acid addition salts formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like; or with organic acids such as acetic acid, propionic acid, hexanoic acid, heptanoic acid, cyclopentanepropionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, lactic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, o-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, 1,2-ethanedisulfonic acid, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, p-chlorobenzenesulfonic acid, 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, camphorsulfonic acid, 4-methylbicyclo[2.2.2]oct-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid, glucoheptonic acid, 4,4′-methylenebis(3-hydroxy-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid), 3-phenylpropionic acid, trimethylacetic acid, tertiary butylacetic acid, lauryl sulfuric acid, gluconic acid, glutamic acid, hydroxynaphthoic acid, salicylic acid, stearic acid, muconic acid and the like. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts also include base addition salts which may be formed when acidic protons present are capable of reacting with inorganic or organic bases. Acceptable inorganic bases include sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, potassium hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide and calcium hydroxide. Acceptable organic bases include ethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, tromethamine, N-methylglucamine and the like.

A compound or composition of the present invention may be administered in any desired and effective manner: for oral ingestion, or as an ointment or drop for local administration to the eyes, or for parenteral or other administration in any appropriate manner such as intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, topical, intradermal, inhalation, intrapulmonary, rectal, vaginal, sublingual, intramuscular, intravenous, intraarterial, intrathecal, or intralymphatic. Further, a compound or composition of the present invention may be administered in conjunction with other treatments. A compound or composition of the present invention may be encapsulated or otherwise protected against gastric or other secretions, if desired.

The compositions of the invention are preferably pharmaceutically acceptable and may comprise one or more active ingredients in admixture with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers and, optionally, one or more other compounds, drugs, ingredients and/or materials. Regardless of the route of administration selected, the agents/compounds of the present invention are formulated into pharmaceutically-acceptable dosage forms by conventional methods known to those of skill in the art. See, e.g., Remington, The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (21^(st) Edition, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa.). More generally, “pharmaceutically acceptable” means that which is useful in preparing a composition that is generally safe, non-toxic, and neither biologically nor otherwise undesirable and includes that which is acceptable for veterinary use as well as human pharmaceutical use.

Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are well known in the art (see, e.g., Remington, The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (21^(st) Edition, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa.) and The National Formulary (American Pharmaceutical Association, Washington, D.C.)) and include sugars (e.g., lactose, sucrose, mannitol, and sorbitol), starches, cellulose preparations, calcium phosphates (e.g., dicalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate and calcium hydrogen phosphate), sodium citrate, water, aqueous solutions (e.g., saline, sodium chloride injection, Ringer's injection, dextrose injection, dextrose and sodium chloride injection, lactated Ringer's injection), alcohols (e.g., ethyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, and benzyl alcohol), polyols (e.g., glycerol, propylene glycol, and polyethylene glycol), organic esters (e.g., ethyl oleate and tryglycerides), biodegradable polymers (e.g., polylactide-polyglycolide, poly(orthoesters), and poly(anhydrides)), elastomeric matrices, liposomes, microspheres, oils (e.g., corn, germ, olive, castor, sesame, cottonseed, and groundnut), cocoa butter, waxes (e.g., suppository waxes), paraffins, silicones, talc, silicylate, etc. Each pharmaceutically acceptable carrier used in a composition of the invention must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and not injurious to the subject. Carriers suitable for a selected dosage form and intended route of administration are well known in the art, and acceptable carriers for a chosen dosage form and method of administration can be determined using ordinary skill in the art.

The compositions of the invention may, optionally, contain additional ingredients and/or materials commonly used in such compositions. These ingredients and materials are well known in the art and include (1) fillers or extenders, such as starches, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and silicic acid; (2) binders, such as carboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, sucrose and acacia; (3) humectants, such as glycerol; (4) disintegrating agents, such as agar-agar, calcium carbonate, potato or tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates, sodium starch glycolate, cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and sodium carbonate; (5) solution retarding agents, such as paraffin; (6) absorption accelerators, such as quaternary ammonium compounds; (7) wetting agents, such as cetyl alcohol and glycerol monostearate; (8) absorbents, such as kaolin and bentonite clay; (9) lubricants, such as talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solid polyethylene glycols, and sodium lauryl sulfate; (10) suspending agents, such as ethoxylated isostearyl alcohols, polyoxyethylene sorbitol and sorbitan esters, microcrystalline cellulose, aluminum metahydroxide, bentonite, agar-agar and tragacanth; (11) buffering agents; (12) excipients, such as lactose, milk sugars, polyethylene glycols, animal and vegetable fats, oils, waxes, paraffins, cocoa butter, starches, tragacanth, cellulose derivatives, polyethylene glycol, silicones, bentonites, silicic acid, talc, salicylate, zinc oxide, aluminum hydroxide, calcium silicates, and polyamide powder; (13) inert diluents, such as water or other solvents; (14) preservatives; (15) surface-active agents; (16) dispersing agents; (17) control-release or absorption-delaying agents, such as hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, other polymer matrices, biodegradable polymers, liposomes, microspheres, aluminum monostearate, gelatin, and waxes; (18) opacifying agents; (19) adjuvants; (20) wetting agents; (21) emulsifying and suspending agents; (22), solubilizing agents and emulsifiers, such as ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, oils (in particular, cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ, olive, castor and sesame oils), glycerol, tetrahydrofuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols and fatty acid esters of sorbitan; (23) propellants, such as chlorofluorohydrocarbons and volatile unsubstituted hydrocarbons, such as butane and propane; (24) antioxidants; (25) agents which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient, such as sugars and sodium chloride; (26) thickening agents; (27) coating materials, such as lecithin; and (28) sweetening, flavoring, coloring, perfuming and preservative agents. Each such ingredient or material must be “acceptable” in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of the formulation and not injurious to the subject. Ingredients and materials suitable for a selected dosage form and intended route of administration are well known in the art, and acceptable ingredients and materials for a chosen dosage form and method of administration may be determined using ordinary skill in the art.

Compositions suitable for oral administration may be in the form of capsules, cachets, pills, tablets, powders, granules, a solution or a suspension in an aqueous or non-aqueous liquid, an oil-in-water or water-in-oil liquid emulsion, an elixir or syrup, a pastille, a bolus, an electuary or a paste. These formulations may be prepared by methods known in the art, e.g., by means of conventional pan-coating, mixing, granulation or lyophilization processes.

Solid dosage forms for oral administration (capsules, tablets, pills, dragees, powders, granules and the like) may be prepared, e.g., by mixing the active ingredient(s) with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers and, optionally, one or more fillers, extenders, binders, humectants, disintegrating agents, solution retarding agents, absorption accelerators, wetting agents, absorbents, lubricants, and/or coloring agents. Solid compositions of a similar type may be employed as fillers in soft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using a suitable excipient. A tablet may be made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessory ingredients. Compressed tablets may be prepared using a suitable binder, lubricant, inert diluent, preservative, disintegrant, surface-active or dispersing agent. Molded tablets may be made by molding in a suitable machine. The tablets, and other solid dosage forms, such as dragees, capsules, pills and granules, may optionally be scored or prepared with coatings and shells, such as enteric coatings and other coatings well known in the pharmaceutical-formulating art. They may also be formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of the active ingredient therein. They may be sterilized by, for example, filtration through a bacteria-retaining filter. These compositions may also optionally contain opacifying agents and may be of a composition such that they release the active ingredient only, or preferentially, in a certain portion of the gastrointestinal tract, optionally, in a delayed manner. The active ingredient can also be in microencapsulated form.

Liquid dosage forms for oral administration include pharmaceutically-acceptable emulsions, microemulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups and elixirs. The liquid dosage forms may contain suitable inert diluents commonly used in the art. Besides inert diluents, the oral compositions may also include adjuvants, such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, sweetening, flavoring, coloring, perfuming and preservative agents. Suspensions may contain suspending agents.

Compositions for rectal or vaginal administration may be presented as a suppository, which may be prepared by mixing one or more active ingredient(s) with one or more suitable nonirritating carriers which are solid at room temperature, but liquid at body temperature and, therefore, will melt in the rectum or vaginal cavity and release the active compound. Compositions which are suitable for vaginal administration also include pessaries, tampons, creams, gels, pastes, foams or spray formulations containing such pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers as are known in the art to be appropriate.

Dosage forms for the topical or transdermal administration include powders, sprays, ointments, pastes, creams, lotions, gels, solutions, patches, drops and inhalants. The active agent(s)/compound(s) may be mixed under sterile conditions with a suitable pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier. The ointments, pastes, creams and gels may contain excipients. Powders and sprays may contain excipients and propellants.

Compositions suitable for parenteral administrations comprise one or more agent(s)/compound(s) in combination with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable sterile isotonic aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, dispersions, suspensions or emulsions, or sterile powders which may be reconstituted into sterile injectable solutions or dispersions just prior to use, which may contain suitable antioxidants, buffers, solutes which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient, or suspending or thickening agents. Proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of coating materials, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersions, and by the use of surfactants. These compositions may also contain suitable adjuvants, such as wetting agents, emulsifying agents and dispersing agents. It may also be desirable to include isotonic agents. In addition, prolonged absorption of the injectable pharmaceutical form may be brought about by the inclusion of agents which delay absorption.

In some cases, in order to prolong the effect of a drug (e.g., pharmaceutical formulation), it is desirable to slow its absorption from subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. This may be accomplished by the use of a liquid suspension of crystalline or amorphous material having poor water solubility.

The rate of absorption of the active agent/drug then depends upon its rate of dissolution which, in turn, may depend upon crystal size and crystalline form. Alternatively, delayed absorption of a parenterally-administered agent/drug may be accomplished by dissolving or suspending the active agent/drug in an oil vehicle. Injectable depot forms may be made by forming microencapsule matrices of the active ingredient in biodegradable polymers. Depending on the ratio of the active ingredient to polymer, and the nature of the particular polymer employed, the rate of active ingredient release can be controlled. Depot injectable formulations are also prepared by entrapping the drug in liposomes or microemulsions which are compatible with body tissue. The injectable materials can be sterilized for example, by filtration through a bacterial-retaining filter.

The formulations may be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose sealed containers, for example, ampules and vials, and may be stored in a lyophilized condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example water for injection, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions may be prepared from sterile powders, granules and tablets of the type described above.

It is understood that the disclosure of a compound herein encompasses all stereoisomers of that compound. As used herein, the term “stereoisomer” refers to a compound made up of the same atoms bonded by the same bonds but having different three-dimensional structures which are not interchangeable. The three-dimensional structures are called configurations. Stereoisomers include enantiomers and diastereomers.

The terms “racemate” or “racemic mixture” refer to a mixture of equal parts of enantiomers. The term “chiral center” refers to a carbon atom to which four different groups are attached. The term “enantiomeric enrichment” as used herein refers to the increase in the amount of one enantiomer as compared to the other.

It is appreciated that to the extent compounds of the present invention have a chiral center, they may exist in and be isolated in optically active and racemic forms. Some compounds may exhibit polymorphism. It is to be understood that the present invention encompasses any racemic, optically-active, diastereomeric, polymorphic, or stereoisomeric form, or mixtures thereof, of a compound of the invention, which possess the useful properties described herein, it being well known in the art how to prepare optically active forms (for example, by resolution of the racemic form by recrystallization techniques, by synthesis from optically-active starting materials, by chiral synthesis, or by chromatographic separation using a chiral stationary phase).

Examples of methods to obtain optically active materials are known in the art, and include at least the following:

-   -   i) physical separation of crystals—a technique whereby         macroscopic crystals of the individual enantiomers are manually         separated. This technique can be used if crystals of the         separate enantiomers exist, i.e., the material is a         conglomerate, and the crystals are visually distinct;     -   ii) simultaneous crystallization—a technique whereby the         individual enantiomers are separately crystallized from a         solution of the racemate, possible only if the latter is a         conglomerate in the solid state;     -   iii) enzymatic resolutions—a technique whereby partial or         complete separation of a racemate by virtue of differing rates         of reaction for the enantiomers with an enzyme;     -   iv) enzymatic asymmetric synthesis—a synthetic technique whereby         at least one step of the synthesis uses an enzymatic reaction to         obtain an enantiomerically pure or enriched synthetic precursor         of the desired enantiomer;     -   v) chemical asymmetric synthesis—a synthetic technique whereby         the desired enantiomer is synthesized from an achiral precursor         under conditions that produce asymmetry (i.e., chirality) in the         product, which may be achieved using chiral catalysts as         disclosed in more detail herein or chiral auxiliaries;     -   vi) diastereomer separations—a technique whereby a racemic         compound is reacted with an enantiomerically pure reagent (the         chiral auxiliary) that converts the individual enantiomers to         diastereomers. The resulting diastereomers are then separated by         chromatography or crystallization by virtue of their now more         distinct structural differences and the chiral auxiliary later         removed to obtain the desired enantiomer;     -   vii) first- and second-order asymmetric transformations—a         technique whereby diastereomers from the racemate equilibrate to         yield a preponderance in solution of the diastereomer from the         desired enantiomer or where preferential crystallization of the         diastereomer from the desired enantiomer perturbs the         equilibrium such that eventually in principle all the material         is converted to the crystalline diastereomer from the desired         enantiomer. The desired enantiomer is then released from the         diastereomer;     -   viii) kinetic resolutions—this technique refers to the         achievement of partial or complete resolution of a racemate (or         of a further resolution of a partially resolved compound) by         virtue of unequal reaction rates of the enantiomers with a         chiral, non-racemic reagent or catalyst under kinetic         conditions;     -   ix) enantiospecific synthesis from non-racemic precursors—a         synthetic technique whereby the desired enantiomer is obtained         from non-chiral starting materials and where the stereochemical         integrity is not or is only minimally compromised over the         course of the synthesis;     -   x) chiral liquid chromatography—a technique whereby the         enantiomers of a racemate are separated in a liquid mobile phase         by virtue of their differing interactions with a stationary         phase. The stationary phase can be made of chiral material or         the mobile phase can contain an additional chiral material to         provoke the differing interactions;     -   xi) chiral gas chromatography—a technique whereby the racemate         is volatilized and enantiomers are separated by virtue of their         differing interactions in the gaseous mobile phase with a column         containing a fixed non-racemic chiral adsorbent phase;     -   xii) extraction with chiral solvents—a technique whereby the         enantiomers are separated by virtue of preferential dissolution         of one enantiomer into a particular chiral solvent;     -   xiii) transport across chiral membranes—a technique whereby a         racemate is placed in contact with a thin membrane barrier. The         barrier typically separates two miscible fluids, one containing         the racemate, and a driving force such as concentration or         pressure differential causes preferential transport across the         membrane barrier. Separation occurs as a result of the         non-racemic chiral nature of the membrane which allows only one         enantiomer of the racemate to pass through.

The stereoisomers may also be separated by usual techniques known to those skilled in the art including fractional crystallization of the bases or their salts or chromatographic techniques such as LC or flash chromatography. The (+) enantiomer can be separated from the (−) enantiomer using techniques and procedures well known in the art, such as that described by J. Jacques, et al., antiomers, Racemates, and Resolutions”, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1981. For example, chiral chromatography with a suitable organic solvent, such as ethanol/acetonitrile and Chiralpak AD packing, 20 micron can also be utilized to effect separation of the enantiomers.

The following examples are provided to further illustrate the methods of the present invention. These examples are illustrative only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention in any way.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Materials And Methods General Synthetic Route for Carbonyl Erastin Analogs

The general synthetic schemes for generating carbonyl erastin analogs according to the present invention are shown below.

Synthetic Procedures—General Information

All reactions were carried out under a nitrogen atmosphere under anhydrous conditions unless indicated otherwise. Anhydrous methylene chloride (DCM), tetrahydrofuran (THF), N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), acetonitrile (MeCN) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Reactions were magnetically stirred and monitored by thin layer chromatography carried out on Merck pre-coated 0.25 mm silica plates containing a 254 nm fluorescence indicator. Flash chromatography was preformed on a Teledyne combiflash companion automatic flash chromatography system. Preparative thin layer chromatography was performed on 1 mm plates. Spectroscopy: NMR spectra were obtained on a Bruker DPX 400 MHz spectrometer. CI-MS spectra were taken on a Nermag R-10-10 instrument and high resolution MS were taken on a double focusing sector type mass spectrometer HX-110A (JEOL Ltd. Tokyo Japan).

The following abbreviations are used. DIPEA=diisopropylethyl amine, EtOAc=ethyl acetate, Et₂O=diethyl ether, MeOH=methanol, EtOH=ethanol, Pd(PPh₃)₄=Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0), Na₂SO₄=sodium sulfate, DMAP=4-dimethylaminopyridine, NaHCO₃=sodium bicarbonate, AcOH=acetic acid, DCM=dichloromethane, MeCN=acetonitrile, NEt₃=triethylamine, r.t.=room temperature, and THF=terahydrofuran.

General Procedure 1: Synthesis of α-Amino Acetophenones

To a solution of 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone (1 equivalent) in DCM (0.5 M) was added the secondary amine (3 equivalents). The reaction mixture was stirred under reflux for 2 hours, quenched with water, extracted two times with DCM. The combined organic layers were dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure. Silica gel column chromatography (DCM/MeOH=100/0 to 95/5) afforded the corresponding α-amino acetophenone.

General Procedure 2a: Reduction of Substituted Nitrobenzenes to Anilines Using Stannous Chloride

To a solution of substituted nitrobenzene (1 equivalent) in THF (0.25 M), HCl (1 N aqueous solution, 4 equivalents), and stannous chloride (3 equivalents) were added, and the reaction mixture was heated to 50° C. for 15 hours. Upon completion, the mixture was quenched with saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate, filtered and the crude product was extracted twice with ethyl acetate. The combined organic layers were dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure. Silica gel column chromatography (DCM/MeOH=100/0 to 90/10) afforded the corresponding aniline.

General Procedure 2b: Reduction of Substituted Nitrobenzenes to Anilines Using Fe

To a solution of substituted nitrobenzene (1 equivalent) in glacial acetic acid (0.10 M), iron powder (5 equivalents) was added in one batch and the reaction mixture was heated to 100° C. for 1.5 hours. Upon completion, the mixture was filtered through celite, and concentrated under reduced pressure. Silica gel column chromatography (hexane/EtOAc=100/0 to 40/60) afforded the corresponding aniline.

General Procedure 3a: Phosphorus Trichloride-Triggered Cyclocendensation in Acetonitrile (for the Most Polar Anilines)

DIPEA (1.2 equivalents) was added to a solution of 2-(2-chloroethanamido)benzoic acid (1 equivalent) at room temperature in acetonitrile (0.03 M) and stirred for 2 minutes before the dropwise addition of phosphorous trichloride (1.2 equivalents). After 10 minutes of stirring at room temperature, the desired O-isopropoxyaniline (0.9 equivalents) was added dropwise as a 1.5 M solution in acetonitrile, and the resulting mixture was heated to 60° C. and stirred for an additional 8 hours. Upon completion the reaction was carefully quenched with saturated aqueous NaHCO₃, diluted with water, and extracted 3 times with EtOAc. The combined organic layers were dried (Na₂SO₄) and concentrated under reduce pressure. Silica gel column chromatography (DCM +0.5% NEt₃/MeOH=100/0 to 90/10) afforded the corresponding quinazolinones.

General Procedure 3b: Phosphorus Trichloride-Triggered Cyclocondensation in Dioxane (for the Less Polar Anilines)

DIPEA (1.2 equivalents) was added to a solution of 2-(2-chloroethanamido)benzoic acid (1 equivalent) at room temperature in dioxane (0.2 M) and stirred for 2 minutes before the dropwise addition of phosphorous trichloride (1.2 equivalents). After 10 minutes of stirring at room temperature, the desired O-isopropoxyaniline (0.9 equivalents) was added dropwise as a 1.5 M solution in dioxane and the resulting mixture was heated to 70° C. and stirred for an additional 6 hours. Upon completion, the reaction was carefully quenched with saturated aqueous NaHCO₃, diluted with water, and extracted 3 times with EtOAc. The combined organic layers were dried (Na₂SO₄) and concentrated under reduce pressure. Silica gel column chromatography (hexane/EtOAc=100/0 to 50/50) afforded the corresponding quinazolinones.

General Procedure 4: Functionalization of the Quinazolinone Ring with (4-chlorophenoxy)acyl piperazine Moiety

Piperazine (3.0 equivalents) was added to a solution of the chloromethyl quinazolinone (1 equivalent) in THF (0.2 M) and the resulting mixture was stirred at room temperature for 12 hours. The reaction mixture was then concentrated under reduce pressure. Silica gel column chromatography (DCM +0.5% NEt₃/MeOH=100/0 to 80/20) afforded the corresponding piperazine quinazolinone which was immediately used for the next step.

To a solution of the piperazine quinazolinine (1 equivalent) in DCM (0.1 M) was added EDIPA (1.2 equivalents) at room temperature. The mixture was then cooled to 0° C., before the sequential addition of 4-chlorophenoxyacetyl chloride (1.2 equivalents) and 4-DMAP (0.5 equivalents). The mixture was slowly warmed to room temperature and stirred for an additional 3 hours. Upon completion, the reaction was quenched with saturated aqueous NaHCO₃ and extracted 3 times with dichloromethane. The combined organic layers were dried (Na₂SO₄) and concentrated under reduced pressure. Silica gel column chromatography (DCM +0.5% NEt₃/MeOH=100/0 to 95/5) afforded the corresponding acylated quinazolinones.

General Procedure 5: Synthesis of Acetophenones

To a solution of 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (1 equiv.) in DCM (0.5 M) was added the secondary amine (3 equiv.). The reaction mixture was stirred under reflux for 2 hours, quenched with water, extracted two times with DCM. The combined organic layers were dried over sodium sulfate and concentrated under reduced pressure. Silica gel column chromatography (DCM/MeOH =100/0 to 90/10) afforded the corresponding acetophenone.

General Procedure 6: Synthesis of Amines Through Imine Intermediates

To a solution of the acetophenone (150 mg, 1 equiv.) in MeOH (2 mL), was added the n-butylamine (10 equiv). The reaction mixture was stirred at 37° C. for 24 hours, forming the imine intermediate. Subsequently NaCNBH₃ (1.2 equiv) was added and the mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2 hours. Upon completion the reaction mixture was concentrated under reduced pressure and purified by preparatory TLC (hexane:EtOAc=5:2) to afford both the starting acetophenone as well as the final amine. The masses of both were obtained and compared to determine the final amine/ketone ratio.

1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone (1)

C₁₁H₁₃NO₄ MW=223.23 g/mol

To a solution of 4-hydroxy-3-nitroacetophenone (4.15 g, 22.9 mmol, 1 equivalent) in DMF (50 mL) at room temperature was added potassium carbonate (3.80 g, 27.5 mmol, 1.2 equivalents). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 15 minutes and 2-iodopropane (4.60 mL, 45.8 mmol, 2.0 equivalents) was then added dropwise. The mixture was subsequently stirred at 70° C. for 12 hours. Upon completion, the reaction mixture was quenched with water and extracted twice with ethyl acetate. The combined organic layers were dried over sodium sulfate, concentrated under reduced pressure and purified by flash column chromatography (hexane/EtOAc=100/0 to 60/40) to afford 1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone 1 (4.43 g, 87% yield) as a yellow solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.31 (d, J=2.3 Hz, 1H), 8.07 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=2.3 Hz, 1H), 7.11 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 4.77 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 2.55 (s, 3H), 1.38 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.9, 154.8, 140.3, 133.6, 129.1, 126.1, 115.0, 73.2, 26.3, 21.8 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]⁺ calculated for C₁₁H₁₄NO₄, 224.23; found 224.19.

2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone (2)

C₁₁H₁₂ClNO₄ MW=257.67 g/mol

To a solution of 1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone 1 (3.50 g, 15.7 mmol, 1 equivalent) in acetonitrile (60 mL) at room temperature were added p-toluenesulfonic acid (4.47 g, 23.5 mmol, 1.5 equivalents) and N-chlorosuccinimide (2.10 g, 15.7 mmol, 1 equivalent). The mixture was refluxed for 3 hours, concentrated under reduced pressure and purified by flash column chromatography (hexane/EtOAc=100/0 to 70/30) to afford 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone 2 (3.0 g, 74% yield) as a yellow solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.31 (d, J=2.3 Hz, 1H), 8.08 (dd, J=8.9 Hz, J=2.3 Hz, 1H), 7.15 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 4.77 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.64 (s, 2H), 1.38 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 188.4, 155.3, 140.3, 134.0, 126.3, 125.9, 115.2, 73.4, 45.4, 21.7 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₁H₁₃ClNO₄, 258.04; found 258.14.

1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)-2-morpholinoacetone (3a)

C₁₅H₂₀N₂O₅ MW=308.33 g/mol

Following general procedure 1 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone 2 (230 mg, 0.89 mmol) and morpholine (232 mg, 2.67 mmol), 3a (180 mg, 66% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.54 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 8.20 (dd, J=8.9 Hz, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 7.11 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 4.79 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.76-3.74 (m, 4H), 3.71 (s, 2H), 2.59-2.56 (m, 4H), 1.43 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 193.5, 154.9, 140.2, 133.8, 127.7, 126.3, 114.9, 73.2, 66.8 (2C), 65.1, 53.8 (2C), 21.8 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₅H₂₁N₂O₅, 309.14; found 309.23.

1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)-2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)acetone (3b)

C₁₆H₂₃N₃O₄ MW=321.37 g/mol

Following general procedure 1 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone 2 (330 mg, 1.28 mmol) and 1-N-methylpiperazine (426 μL, 3.84 mmol), 3b (250 mg, 61% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.44 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (dd, J=8.9 Hz, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 7.05 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 4.71 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.64 (s, 2H), 2.55-2.40 (m, 8H), 2.20 (s, 3H), 1.34 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 193.7, 154.8, 140.1, 133.7, 127.7, 126.2, 114.8, 73.1, 64.7, 54.7 (2C), 53.2 (2C), 45.8, 21.7 (2C). HRMS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₆H₂₄N₃O₄, 322.27; found 322.28.

2-(4-para-methoxybenzylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone (3c)

C₂₃H₂₉N₃O₅ MW=427.49 g/mol

Following general procedure 1 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone 2 (1.00 g, 3.88 mmol) and 1-N-para-methoxybenzylpiperazine (1.00 g, 4.85 mmol), 3c (1.60 g, 87% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.52 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 8.17 (dd, J=8.9 Hz, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 7.09 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 4.77 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 3.70 (s, 2H), 3.49 (s, 2H), 2.65-2.45 (m, 8H), 1.41 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 193.7, 159.0, 154.9, 140.3, 133.8, 130.7 (2C), 129.2, 127.9, 126.4, 114.9, 113.7 (2C), 73.2, 64.8, 62.1, 55.3, 53.2 (2C), 52.5 (2C), 21.8 (2C). HRMS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₂₃H₃₀N₃O₅, 428.2107; found 428.2110.

2-(4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone (3d)

C₁₈H₂₅N₃O₄ MW=347.41 g/mol

Following general procedure 1 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone 2 (600 mg, 2.33 mmol) and 1-N-allylpiperazine (977 μL, 6.99 mmol), 3d (595 mg, 74% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.56 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 8.19 (dd, J=8.9 Hz, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 7.09 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 5.87-5.80 (m, 1H), 5.29-5.12 (m, 2H), 4.77 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.69 (s, 2H), 2.99 (d, J=6.5 Hz, 1H), 2.60-2.45 (m, 8H), 1.43 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.0, 154.9, 140.1, 135.0, 133.9, 128.0, 126.6, 118.2, 114.9, 73.2, 65.2, 61.8, 53.6 (2C), 53.0 (2C), 21.9 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₈H₂₆N₃O₄, 348.18; found 348.24.

2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone (3e)

C₁₄H₁₅N₃O₄ MW=289.29 g/mol

Following general procedure 1 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone 2 (460 mg, 1.78 mmol) and imidazole (363 mg, 5.34 mmol), 3e (350 mg, 68% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.35 (d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (dd, J=8.9 Hz, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.48 (s, 1H), 7.17 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 7.10 (s, 1H), 6.92 (s, 1H), 5.37 (s, 2H), 4.81 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 1.42 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 189.0, 155.8, 140.6, 138.3, 133.6, 129.9, 126.0, 125.9, 120.4, 115.6, 73.7, 52.3, 21.8 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₄H₁₆N₃O₄, 290.10; found 290.19.

2-fluoro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone (3f)

C₁₁H₁₂FNO₄ MW=241.22 g/mol

Following general procedure 1 with 2-fluoro-1-(4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl)ethanone (500 mg, 2.50 mmol), 3f (351 mg, 58% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.34 (d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.11 (dd, J=8.9 Hz, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.16 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 5.43 (d, J_(H-F)=47 Hz, 2H), 4.80 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 1.44 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 6H). MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₄H₁₆N₃O₄, 242.2157; found 242.2161.

trifluoro-1-(4-isopropoxy-3-nitrophenyl)acetone (3q)

C₁₁H₁₀F₃NO₄ MW=277.20 g/mol

Following general procedure 1 with trifluoro-1-(4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl)ethanone (238 mg, 1.01 mmol), 3g (140 mg, 51% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.52 (s, 1H), 8.26-8.23 (m, 1H), 7.23 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 4.89 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 1.50 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 6H). MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₁H₁₁F₃NO₄, 278.0562; found 278.0600.

1-(3-amino-4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-morpholinoacetone (4a)

C₁₅H₂₂N₂O₃ MW=278.34 g/mol

Following general procedure 2a with 3a (500 mg, 1.62 mmol), 4a (236 mg, 52% yield) was obtained as a yellow solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.28-7.24 (m, 2H), 6.63 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.47 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.93 (brs, 2H), 3.63-3.58 (m, 2H), 2.45-2.43 (m, 2H), 1.23 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.7, 149.2, 136.9, 128.6, 119.2, 113.6, 110.9, 70.2, 66.4 (2C), 63.9, 53.6 (2C), 53.3, 21.7 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]⁺ calculated for C₁₅H₂₃N₂O₃, 279.1709; found 279.1700.

1-(3-amino-4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2- (4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)acetone (4b)

C₁₆H₂₅N₃O₂ MW=291.39 g/mol

Following general procedure 2a with 3b (150 mg, 0.47 mmol), 4b (120 mg, 88% yield) was obtained as a yellow solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.37 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 7.32 (s, 1H), 6.72 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.59 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.91 (brs, 2H), 3.70 (s, 2 H), 2.58-2.49 (m, 8H), 2.26 (s, 3H), 1.33 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.1, 149.6, 137.0, 129.2, 119.8, 114.2, 111.3, 70.6, 64.1, 54.9 (2C), 53.5 (2C), 46.0, 22.1 (2C).

1-(3-amino-4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)acetone (4c)

C₂₃H₃₁N₃O₃ MW=397.51

Following general procedure 2a with 3c (1.6 g, 3.7 mmol), 4c (930 mg, 63% yield) was obtained as a yellow solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.40 (dd, J=8.9 Hz, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.35 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 6.83 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 6.75 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 4.63 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.83 (brs, 2H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 3.72 (s, 2H), 3.45 (s, 2H), 2.65-2.45 (m, 8H), 1.36 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.2, 158.8, 149.6, 137.0, 130.4 (2C), 130.1, 129.2, 119.8, 114.2, 113.6 (2C), 111.3, 70.7, 64.1, 62.4, 55.3, 53.6 (2C), 52.8 (2C), 22.1 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]⁺ calculated for C₂₃H₃₂N₃O₃, 398.2444; found 398.2444.

1-(3-amino-4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2- (4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)acetone (4d)

C₁₈H₂₇N₃O₂ MW=317.43 g/mol

Following general procedure 2a with 3d (350 mg, 1.00 mmol), 4d (250 mg, 79% yield) was obtained as a yellow solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.39 (dd, J=8.4 Hz, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 7.34 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 6.74 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H), 5.88-5.79 (m, 1H), 5.27-5.10 (m, 2H), 4.63 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.87 (bs, 2H), 3.71 (s, 2H), 2.98 (d, J=6.2 Hz, 1H), 2.62-2.45 (m, 8H), 1.35 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.2, 149.6, 137.0, 135.1, 129.3, 119.9, 118.1, 114.3, 111.3, 70.7, 64.2, 61.8, 53.7 (2C), 53.0 (2C), 22.2 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]⁺ calculated for C₁₈H₂₈N₃O₂, 318.2182; found 318.2193.

1-(3-amino-4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl) acetone (4e)

C₁₄H₁₇N₃O₂ MW=259.30

Following general procedure 2a with 3e (350 mg, 1.2 mmol), 4e (210 mg, 67% yield) was obtained as a yellow solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.50 (s, 1H), 7.36-7.33 (m, 2H), 7.13 (s, 1H), 6.94 (s, 1H), 6.82 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 1H), 5.30 (s, 2H), 4.69 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.11 (brs, 2H), 1.40 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 190.3, 150.5, 138.3, 137.7, 129.5, 120.4, 119.7, 113.7, 111.4, 71.1, 52.1, 22.2 (2C). MS (m/z): [MH]⁺ calculated for C₁₄H₁₈N₃O₂, 260.1399; found 260.1395.

1-(3-amino-4-isopropoxyphenyl)acetone (4f)

C₁₁H₁₅NO₂ MW=193.24 g/mol

Following general procedure 2b with 1 (900 mg, 4.03 mmol), 4f (600 mg, 77% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.35-7.33 (m, 2H), 6.77 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H), 4.63 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.85 (brs, 2H), 2.50 (s, 3H), 1.36 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 197.4, 149.6, 137.0, 130.4, 120.4, 114.4, 111.4, 70.7, 26.3, 22.2 (2C). MS (m/z): [M]⁺ calculated for C₁₁H₁₅NO₂, 193.1103; found 193.1098.

1-(3-amino-4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-fluoroacetone (4q)

C₁₁H₁₄FNO₂ MW=211.23 g/mol

Following general procedure 2b with 3f (50 mg, 0.2 mmol), 4g (43 mg, 100% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.26-7.17 (m, 2H), 6.71 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 1H), 5.37 (d, J_(H-F)=47 Hz, 2H), 4.57 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 3.84 (brs, 2H), 1.31 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). MS (m/z): [M]⁺ calculated for C₁₁H₁₅FNO₂, 212.1009; found 212.1010.

1-(3-amino-4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2,2,2-trifluoroacetone (4h)

C₁₁H₁₂F₃NO₂ MW=247.21 g/mol

Following general procedure 2b with 3g (140 mg, 0.5 mmol), 4h (65 mg, 53% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 7.50-7.48 (m, 1H), 7.40 (s, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 1H), 4.71 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.00 (brs, 2H), 1.41 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). MS (m/z): [M]⁺ calculated for C₁₁H₁₃F₃NO₂, 248.0820; found 248.0815.

2-(chloromethyl)-3-(2-isopropoxy-5-(2-morpholinoethanoyl)phenyl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one (5a)

C₂₄H₂₆ClN₃O₄ MW=455.94 g/mol

Following general procedure 3b with 4a (155 mg, 0.55 mmol), 5a (76 mg, 31% yield) was obtained as a white oily solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.27 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H), 8.19 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (d, J=2.0 Hz, 1H), 7.80-7.75 (m, 2H), 7.54-7.52 (m, 1H), 7.10 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 4.67 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.36, 4.13 (ABq, J_(AB)=11.9 Hz, 2H), 3.74-3.70 (m, 4H), 2.59-2.49 (m, 4H), 1.26 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.20 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.0, 161.5, 157.4, 151.8, 147.1, 134.8, 131.9, 131.7, 128.9, 127.9, 127.8 127.3, 125.0, 121.3, 113.4, 72.0, 66.9 (2C), 65.0, 53.9 (2C), 43.8, 21.9, 21.8.

2-(chloromethyl)-3-(2-isopropoxy-5-(2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethanoyl)phenyl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one (5b)

C₂₅H₂₉ClN₄O₃ MW=468.98 g/mol

Following general procedure 3a with 4b (380 mg, 1.30 mmol), 5b (275 mg, 45% yield) was obtained as a beige oily solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.28 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H), 8.20 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (s, 1H), 7.81-7.77 (m, 2H), 7.27-7.23 (m, 1H), 7.10 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 4.67 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.36, 4.13 (ABq, J_(AB)=11.9 Hz, 2H), 3.77, 3.65 (ABq, J_(AB)=16.0 Hz, 2H), 2.65-2.45 (m, 8H), 2.26 (s, 3H), 1.25 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.20 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.2, 161.5, 157.3, 151.9, 147.1, 134.8, 132.0, 131.7, 129.0, 127.8, 127.3, 124.9, 121.3, 113.3, 71.9, 64.8, 55.0 (2C), 53.6 (2C), 46.2, 46.1, 43.8, 21.9, 21.8.

2-(chloromethyl)-3-(2-isopropoxy-5-(2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethanoyl)phenyl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one (5c)

C₃₂H₃₅ClN₄O₄ MW=575.10 g/mol

Following general procedure 3a with 4c (230 mg, 0.52 mmol), 5c (134 mg, 45% yield) was obtained as a white oily solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.32 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H), 8.20 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 8.06 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.82-7.77 (m, 2H), 7.59-7.51 (m, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 2H), 7.10 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 6.84 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 2H), 4.67 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.37, 4.13 (ABq, J_(AB)=11.9 Hz, 2H), 3.75 (s, 3H), 3.74-3.64 (m, 2H), 3.44 (s, 2H), 2.62-2.45 (m, 8H), 1.28 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H).

3-(5-(2-(4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)ethanoyl)-2-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(chloromethyl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one (5d)

C₂₇H₃₁ClN₄O₃ MW=495.01 g/mol

Following general procedure 3a with 4d (800 mg, 2.52 mmol), 5d (800 mg, 64% yield) was obtained as a beige oily solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.28 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H), 8.20 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 8.05 (s, 1H), 7.79-7.74 (m, 2H), 7.53-7.49 (m, 1H), 7.09 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 5.87-5.78 (m, 1H), 5.26-5.10 (m, 2H), 4.64 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.35, 4.12 (ABq, J_(AB)=11.9 Hz, 2H), 3.76, 3.65 (ABq, J_(AB)=16.1 Hz, 2H), 2.98 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 2.65-2.45 (m, 8H), 1.24 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.18 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.2, 161.5, 157.3, 151.9, 147.1, 134.8, 134.7, 132.0, 131.7, 129.0, 127.8 (2C), 127.3, 124.9, 121.3, 118.4, 113.3, 71.9, 64.8, 61.7, 53.4 (2C), 52.8 (2C), 43.8, 21.9, 21.8.

3-(5-(2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)ethanoyl)-2-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(chloromethyl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one (5e)

C₂₃H₂₁ClN₄O₃ MW=436.89 g/mol

Following general procedure 3a with 4e (190 mg, 0.73 mmol), 5e (170 mg, 53% yield) was obtained as a beige oily solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.28 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H), 8.20 (dd, J=8.8 Hz, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 8.00 (s, 1H), 7.78-7.71 (m, 2H), 7.52-7.50 (m, 1H), 7.45 (s, 1H), 7.13 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 7.07 (s, 1H), 6.90 (s, 1H), 5.53 (s, 2H), 4.67 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.35, 4.08 (ABq, J_(AB)=11.9 Hz, 2H), 1.25 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.19 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 189.5, 161.4, 158.1, 151.4, 147.0, 138.2, 134.9, 131.8, 131.4, 129.5, 128.0, 127.8, 127.1, 127.0, 125.5, 121.0, 120.4, 113.8, 72.3, 52.2, 43.8, 21.8, 21.7.

2-(chloromethyl)-3-(5-ethanoyl-2-isopropoxyphenyl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one (5f)

C₂₀H₁₉ClN₂O₃ MW=370.83 g/mol

Following general procedure 3a with 4f (610 mg, 3.15 mmol), 5f (553 mg, 47% yield) was obtained as a beige oily solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.28 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.12 (dd, J=8.7 Hz, J=1.8 Hz, 1H), 7.97 (s, 1H), 7.83-7.76 (m, 2H), 7.55-7.51 (m, 1H), 7.12 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 4.67 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.36, 4.12 (ABq, J_(AB)=11.9 Hz, 2H), 2.56 (s, 3H), 1.26 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.7, 161.5, 157.3, 151.9, 147.1, 134.9, 131.9, 131.7, 130.3, 127.9, 127.8, 127.3, 125.2, 121.3, 113.4, 72.0, 43.8, 26.4, 22.0, 21.8.

2-(chloromethyl)-3-(5-(2-fluoroethanoyl)-2-isopropoxyphenyl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one (5g)

C₂₀H₁₈ClFN₂O₃ MW=388.82 g/mol

Following general procedure 3a with 4g (64 mg, 0.28 mmol), 5g (65 mg, 60% yield) was obtained as a beige oily solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.29 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.14-8.10 (m, 1H), 7.95 (s, 1H), 7.83-7.76 (m, 2H), 7.55-7.51 (m, 1H), 7.14 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 5.46 (d, J_(H-F)=47 Hz, 2H), 4.67 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.36, 4.13 (ABq, J_(AB)=11.9 Hz, 2H), 1.27 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.22 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H).

2-(chloromethyl)-3-(2-isopropoxy-5-(2,2,2-trifluoroethanoyl)phenyl)quinazolin-4(3H)-one (5h)

C₂₀H₁₆ClF₃N₂O₃ MW=424.80 g/mol

Following general procedure 3a with 4h (65 mg, 0.26 mmol), 5h (55 mg, 49% yield) was obtained as a beige oily solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.30-8.25 (m, 2H), 8.11 (s, 1H), 7.83-7.76 (m, 2H), 7.57-7.51 (m, 1H), 7.19 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 4.75 (sept, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.37, 4.11 (ABq, J_(AB)=11.9 Hz, 2H), 1.27 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.22 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H).

MKE (6a)

C₃₆H₄₀ClN₅O₆ MW=674.19 g/mol

Following general procedure 4 with 5a (75 mg, 0.16 mmol), MKE (63 mg, 62% yield, 2 steps) was obtained as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.26 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 1H), 8.10 (dd, J=8.7 Hz, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 7.98 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 7.80-7.71 (m, 2H), 7.51-7.47 (m, 1H), 7.20 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.05 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H), 6.82 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.65 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.58 (s, 2H), 3.75-3.73 (m, 4H), 3.50-3.40 (m, 4H), 3.25, 3.18 (ABq, J_(AB)=14.0 Hz, 2H), 2.61-2.35 (m, 8H), 2.18-2.05 (m, 2H), 1.23 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.19 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 193.9, 166.0, 161.8, 157.4, 156.5, 152.8, 147.0, 134.6, 131.5, 131.2, 129.6 (2C), 128.7, 127.6, 127.3, 127.2, 126.7, 126.4, 121.2, 116.0 (2C), 113.0, 72.0, 67.9, 66.9 (2C), 64.9, 61.2, 54.0 (2C), 53.0, 52.7, 45.2, 42.0, 22.2, 21.7.

MPKE (6b)

C₃₇H₄₃ClN₆O₅ MW=687.23 g/mol

Following general procedure 4 with 5b (70 mg, 0.15 mmol), MPKE (13 mg, 20% yield, 2 steps) was obtained as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.28 (d, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 8.13 (dd, J=8.7 Hz, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 8.00 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.79-7.72 (m, 2H), 7.53-7.48 (m, 1H), 7.22 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.06 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.65 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.60 (s, 2H), 3.75-3.73 (m, 2H), 3.50-3.40 (m, 4H), 3.27, 3.19 (ABq, J_(AB)=14.0 Hz, 2H), 2.61-2.35 (m, 10H), 2.30 (s, 3H), 2.18-2.05 (m, 2H), 1.25 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.2, 166.0, 161.9, 157.5, 156.6, 152.9, 147.0, 134.7, 131.6, 131.3, 129.7 (2C), 128.9, 127.6, 127.5, 127.3, 127.2, 126.4, 121.3, 116.1 (2C), 113.1, 72.0, 68.0, 64.7, 61.3, 55.0 (2C), 53.7 (2C), 53.1, 52.7, 46.1, 45.3, 42.1, 22.3, 21.7.

PMB-PKE (6c)

C₄₄H₄₉ClN₆O₆ MW=793.34 g/mol

Following general procedure 4 with 5c (104 mg, 0.18 mmol), PMB-PKE (61 mg, 43% yield, 2 steps) was obtained as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.28 (d, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 8.12 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H), 7.99 (s, 1H), 7.81-7.72 (m, 2H), 7.52-7.48 (m, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 4H), 7.06 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 4H), 4.66 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.60 (s, 2H), 3.79 (s, 3H), 3.72 (s, 2H), 3.47-3.40 (m, 6H), 3.27, 3.19 (ABq, J_(AB)=14.0 Hz, 2H), 2.61-2.35 (m, 10H), 2.19-2.13 (m, 2H), 1.24 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.3, 165.9, 161.8, 157.4, 156.5, 152.8, 147.1, 134.6, 131.5, 131.3, 130.5 (2C), 129.6 (4C), 128.8, 127.6, 127.3, 127.2, 126.7, 126.4, 121.2, 116.0 (4C), 113.7 (2C), 113.0, 71.9, 67.9, 64.7, 62.4, 61.2, 55.3, 53.6 (2C), 53.0, 52.8 (2C), 52.6, 45.2, 42.0, 22.2, 21.7.

APKE (6d)

C₃₉H₄₅ClN₆O₅ MW=713.26 g/mol

Following general procedure 4 with 5d (80 mg, 0.16 mmol), APKE (65 mg, 59% yield, 2 steps) was obtained as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.29 (d, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 8.12 (dd, J=8.7 Hz, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.99 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.79-7.72 (m, 2H), 7.52-7.48 (m, 1H), 7.22 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.06 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 6.84 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 5.88-5.81 (m, 1H), 5.27-5.13 (m, 2H), 4.69 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.60 (s, 2H), 3.74-3.73 (m, 2H), 3.46-3.39 (m, 4H), 3.26, 3.19 (ABq, J_(AB)=14.0 Hz, 2H), 3.00 (d, J=6.6 Hz, 2H), 2.61-2.35 (m, 10H), 2.18-2.05 (m, 2H), 1.25 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 195.1, 166.0, 162.6, 157.5, 156.6, 152.9, 134.6, 131.6, 131.3, 129.6 (2C), 128.7, 127.6, 127.5, 127.3, 127.2, 127.1, 124.1, 121.3, 118.4, 116.1 (2C), 113.2, 72.0, 68.0, 64.7, 61.3, 53.7 (2C), 52.9 (2C), 52.8, 52.7, 46.5, 45.3, 42.1, 22.3, 21.7.

IKE (6e)

C₃₅H₃₅ClN₆O₅ MW=655.14 g/mol

Following general procedure 4 with 5e (120 mg, 0.27 mmol), IKE (110 mg, 61% yield, 2 steps) was obtained as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.22 (d, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 8.01 (dd, J=8.7 Hz, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.99 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.77-7.70 (m, 2H), 7.50-7.45 (m, 2H), 7.19 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 7.50-7.45 (m, 2H), 6.90 (s, 1H), 6.81 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 5.40-5.25 (m, 2H), 4.66 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.57 (s, 2H), 3.43-3.35 (m, 4H), 3.24, 3.16 (ABq, J_(AB)=14.0 Hz, 2H), 2.40-2.01 (m, 4H), 1.25 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 189.7, 166.0, 161.8, 158.3, 156.5, 152.4, 147.0, 138.2, 134.7, 131.4, 130.9, 129.7, 129.5 (2C), 127.7, 127.3, 127.2, 127.0, 126.9, 126.7, 121.0, 120.3, 116.0 (2C), 113.4, 72.3, 67.8, 61.1, 52.7, 52.6, 52.2, 45.1, 41.9, 22.2, 21.6.

KE (6f)

C₃₂H₃₃ClN₄O₅ MW=589.08 g/mol

Following general procedure 4 with 5f (365 mg, 0.88 mmol), KE (282 mg, 54% yield, 2 steps) was obtained as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.28 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H), 8.04 (dd, J=8.7 Hz, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.95 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 7.79-7.72 (m, 2H), 7.52-7.48 (m, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.07 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.65 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.60 (s, 2H), 3.50-3.40 (m, 4H), 3.25, 3.18 (ABq, J_(AB)=14.0 Hz, 2H), 2.56 (s, 3H), 2.44-2.40 (m, 2H), 2.21-2.12 (m, 2H), 1.24 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.20 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) 6 195.8, 166.1, 161.9, 157.3, 156.6, 152.9, 147.1, 134.7, 131.6, 131.5, 130.1, 129.6 (2C), 127.6, 127.3, 127.2, 126.8, 126.5, 121.3, 116.1 (2C), 113.2, 72.0, 68.0, 61.3, 53.1, 52.7, 45.3, 42.1, 26.5, 22.3, 21.7.

FKE (6g)

C₃₂H₃₂ClFN₄O₅ MW=607.07 g/mol

Following general procedure 4 with 5g (25 mg, 0.06 mmol), FKE (19 mg, 51% yield, 2 steps) was obtained as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.28 (d, J=7.4 Hz, 1H), 8.05-7.96 (m, 2H), 7.80-7.74 (m, 2H), 7.52-7.48 (m, 1H), 7.21 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.09 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 5.42 (d, J_(F-H)=47 Hz, 2H), 4.67 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.60 (s, 2H), 3.48-3.40 (m, 4H), 3.26, 3.18 (ABq, J_(AB)=13.9 Hz, 2H), 2.44-2.40 (m, 2H), 2.21-2.12 (m, 2H), 1.24 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.20 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H).

TFKE (6h)

C₃₂H₃₀ClF₃N₄O₅ MW=643.05 g/mol

Following general procedure 4 with 5h (50 mg, 0.12 mmol), TFKE (28 mg, 37% yield, 2 steps) was obtained as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 8.29 (d, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 8.15 (d, J=7.9 Hz, 1H), 8.09 (s, 1H), 7.81-7.73 (m, 2H), 7.52-7.48 (m, 1H), 7.23 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.15 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 1H), 6.85 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.71 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.60 (s, 2H), 3.48-3.16 (m, 6H), 2.44-2.40 (m, 2H), 2.21-2.12 (m, 2H), 1.28 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 3H), 1.25 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 3H).

PKE (7)

C₃₆H₄₁ClN₆O₅ MW=673.20 g/mol

To a Schlenk reactor containing APKE (700 mg, 0.98 mmol, 1 equivalent) in DCM (20 mL) was added under nitrogen N,N-dimethylbarbituric acid (460 mg, 2.94 mmol, 3 equivalents) followed by Pd(PPh₃)₄ (115 mg, 0.1 mmol, 0.1 equivalent). The reaction mixture was stirred under nitrogen for 15 hours at 40° C. Upon completion, the reaction mixture was quenched with 2N aqueous HCl solution (10 mL), and the aqueous phase containing the desired product was extracted with DCM (2×10 mL). The aqueous phase was then basified with 6N aqueous NaOH, and the desired product was extracted into the organic phase (5×10 mL DCM/MeOH 5%). The organic phases were combined, dried over Na₂SO₄ and concentrated under reduced pressure to yield PKE (571 mg, 87%) as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CD₃OD) δ 8.24-8.22 (m, 2H), 8.15 (d, J=1.6 Hz, 1H), 7.91-7.89 (m, 1H), 7.79 (d, J=8.2 Hz, 1H), 7.63-7.59 (m, 1H), 7.33 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 7.26 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 6.93 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.85 (sept, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 4.75 (s, 2H), 3.91 (s, 2H), 3.46-3.27 (m, 6H), 2.93-2.91 (m, 4H), 2.64-2.61 (m, 4H), 2.36-2.17 (m, 4H), 1.27 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H), 1.21 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CD₃OD) δ 196.1, 168.4, 163.6, 158.9, 158.2, 155.0, 148.2, 136.2, 132.7, 132.5, 130.3, 129.8 (2C), 128.7, 128.2, 127.7, 127.4, 127.3, 122.0, 117.3 (2C), 114.5, 73.1, 67.7, 62.0, 54.6 (2C), 53.8, 53.5, 50.0, 45.9 (3C), 42.9, 22.5, 21.8.

1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (8b)

C₁₁H₁₄0₂ MW=178.23

To a solution of 1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (5.00 g, 36.6 mmol, 1 equiv.) in DMF (50 mL) at room temperature was added potassium carbonate (5.80 g, 43.9 mmol, 1.2 equiv.). The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 15 minutes and 2-iodopropane (7.31 mL, 73.3 mmol, 2.0 eq) was then added dropwise. The mixture was subsequently stirred at 70° C. for 12 hours. Upon completion the reaction mixture was quenched with water and extracted twice with ethyl acetate. The combined organic layers were dried over sodium sulfate, concentrated under reduced pressure and purified by flash column chromatography (hexane/EtOAc=100/0 to 60/40) to afford 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (4.27 g, 65% yield) as a clear oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.32-7.66 (m, 2H), 6.91 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.66 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 2.56 (s, 3H), 1.38 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H).¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 196.67, 161.99, 130.59, 129.93, 115.05, 70.08, 26.27, 21.90. MS (m/z): [MH+] calculated for C₁₁H₁₄O₂, 178.23; found 178.55.

2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one

C₁₁H₁₃ClO₂ MW=212.67

To a solution of 8b (4.27 g, 23.9 mmol, 1 equiv.) in acetonitrile (60 mL) at room temperature were added p-toluenesulfonic acid (6.84 g, 35.9 mmol, 1.5 equiv.) and N-chlorosuccinimide (3.52 g, 26.40 mmol, 1.1 equiv.). The mixture was refluxed for 3 hours, concentrated under reduced pressure and purified by flash column chromatography (hexane/EtOAc=100/0 to 70/30) to afford 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (2.88 g, 57% yield) as a white solid.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.95-7.93 (d, J=2.9 Hz, 2H), 6.96-6.94 (d, 2H), 4.71-4.65 (m, 3H), 1.40 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 189.73, 162.88, 131.11, 126.87, 115.51, 70.46, 45.75, 22.011 MS (m/z): [MH+] calculated for C₁₁H₁₃ClO₂, 212.67; found 212.53.

N-(4-isopropoxybenzyl)butan-1-amine (9a)

C₁₄H₂₃NO MW=221.18

Following general procedure 6 with 4-isopropoxybenzaldehyde (50 mg, 0.30 mmol), N-(4-isopropoxybenzyl)butan-1-amine (53 mg, 79% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 4-isopropoxybenzaldehyde, was also obtained (4 mg, 8% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 9.5:1.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.24 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H), 6.95 - 6.72 (m, 2H), 4.54 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.74 (s, 2H), 2.72 - 2.52 (m, 2H), 1.70-1.36 (m, 5H), 1.35 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 7H), 0.93 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 4H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 156.95, 132.11, 129.36, 115.85, 69.92, 53.35, 48.98, 46.99, 32.03, 22.07, 20.48, 13.99. MS (m/z): [MH+] calculated for C₁₄H₂₃NO, 222.18; found 222.19.

N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethyl)butan-1-amine (9b)

C₁₅H₂₅NO MW=235.37

Following general procedure 6 with 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one 8b (100 mg, 0.56 mmol), N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethyl)butan-1-amine (69 mg, 52% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one, was also obtained (18 mg, 18% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 3:1.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.24-7.09 (m, 2H), 6.96-6.63 (m, 2H), 4.54 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.72 (q, J=6.6 Hz, 1H), 2.67-2.31 (m, 2H), 2.19 (s, 1H), 1.63-1.39 (m, 2H), 1.37-1.25 (m, 11H), 0.89 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 156.76, 137.82, 127.50, 115.67, 69.84, 57.71, 47.53, 32.43, 24.27, 22.14, 20.51, 14.00. MS (m/z): [MH+] calculated for C₁₅H₂₅NO 235.19; found 235.47.

2-fluoro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (8c)

C₁₁H₁₃FO₂ MW=196.22

To a solution of LiHMDS (1 M in THF, 3.76 mL, 3.76 mmol, 1.2 equiv.) in THF (25 mL) at room temperature, was added a solution of 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (1.0 g, 5.6 mmol, 1 equiv.) in THF (1 mL) dropwise over 30 minutes. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 15 minutes, then concentrated under reduced pressure, dissolved in MeCN (20 mL) and filtered. To a solution of selectfluor (1.45 g, 4.1 mmol, 1.3 equiv.) in acetonitrile (6 mL) at 0° C. was added the crude filtrate dropwise. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 30 minutes and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude residue was dissolved in EtOAc (30 mL) and washed with water (2×30 mL). The organic layer was dried over sodium sulfate, concentrated under reduced pressure and purified by flash column chromatography (hexane/EtOAc=100/0 to 60/40) to 2-fluoro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one 8c (601 mg, 55% yield) as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.06 (dt, J=8.0, 1.1 Hz, 2H), 7.10-6.82 (m, 2H), 4.72 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 1.42 (d, J=6.2 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 191.92, 191.77, 162.82, 130.29, 130.26, 126.29, 115.44, 84.35, 82.55, 70.32, 21.87. MS (m/z): [MH+] calculated for C₁₁H₁₃FO₂ 196.09; found 196.45.

(E)-N-butyl-2-fluoro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-imine (9c)

C₁₅H₂₂FNO MW=253.36

Following general procedure 6 with 2-fluoro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one 8c (90 mg, 0.46 mmol), (E)-N-butyl-2-fluoro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-imine 9c (47 mg, 40% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 2-fluoro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one, was also obtained (36 mg, 40% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 1:1.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.27 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 6.88 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 4.60, 4.51 (m, 1H), 4.49, 4.25 (m, 2H), 3.97 (ddd, J=12.7, 8.6, 4.1 Hz, 1H), 2.50 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 2H), 1.52, 1.43 (m, 2H), 1.40 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 9H), 0.90 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 4H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 157.60, 130.33, 128.71, 115.41, 84.39, 70.29, 62.54, 62.35, 47.17, 32.36, 21.87, 20.40, 13.97. MS (m/z): [MH+] calculated for C₁₅H₂₂FNO 251.35; found 253.36.

1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-morpholinoethan-1-one (8d)

C₁₅H₂₁NO₃ MW=263.34

Following general procedure 5 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (550 mg, 2.6 mmol) and morpholine (680 μL, 678 mg, 7.8 mmol), 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-morpholinoethan-1-one 8d (482 mg, 71% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.96 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 6.89 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.64 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.92-3.64 (m, 6H), 3.01-2.32 (m, 4H), 1.36 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 7H), 1.25 (s, 1H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.67, 162.24, 130.52, 128.65, 115.12, 70.18, 66.89, 64.57, 60.45, 53.98, 50.73, 21.95, 21.09, 14.25. MS (m/z): [MH+] calculated for C₁₅H₂₁NO₃ 263.44; found 263.44.

N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-morpholinoethyl)butan-1-amine (9d)

C₁₉H₃₂N₂O₂ MW=320.48

Following general procedure 6 with 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-morpholinoethan-1-one (150 mg, 0.57 mmol), N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-morpholinoethyl)butan-1-amine 9d (62 mg, 34% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-morpholinoethan-1-one, was also obtained (62.3 mg, 42% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 1:1.2.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.26 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H), 6.86 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H), 4.55-4.45 (m, 1H), 3.87-3.56 (m, 6H), 3.37 (s, 1H), 2.75-2.05 (m, 9H), 1.33 (dd, J=6.2, 0.8 Hz, 9H), 0.89 (td, J=7.4, 0.8 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 157.57, 132.11, 128.66, 115.91, 69.94, 67.12, 65.18, 60.48, 59.10, 46.96, 31.35, 22.14, 20.38, 13.92. MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₉H₃₂N₂O₂ 320.48; found 320.40.

1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one (8e)

C₁₆H₂₄N₂O₂ MW=276.38

Following general procedure 5 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (550 mg, 2.6 mmol) and methylpiperazine (860 μL, 777 mg, 7.8 mmol), 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one 8e (311 mg, 43% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.99 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 6.90 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 4.65 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.75 (s, 2H), 2.80-2.43 (m, 8H), 2.30 (s, 4H), 1.37 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 7H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.95, 162.17, 130.59, 128.87, 115.11, 70.18, 64.47, 55.05, 53.70, 46.16, 22.02. MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₆H₂₄N₂O₂ 276.38; found 276.45.

N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl)butan-1-amine (9e)

C₂₀H₃₅N₃O MW=333.53

Following general procedure 6 with 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one 8e (150 mg, 0.54 mmol), N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl)butan-1-amine 9e (11.5mg, 6% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one, was also obtained (24.2 mg, 16% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 1:2.5.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.35-7.14 (m, 2H), 6.85 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 4.53 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.70 (dd, J=11.1, 3.4 Hz, 1H), 2.80-2.35 (m, 11H), 2.31 (s, 5H), 1.62-1.37 (m, 3H), 1.34 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 8H), 0.90 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 4H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 157.15, 134.77, 128.44, 115.77, 69.95, 65.84, 59.36, 55.46, 47.55, 46.21, 32.32, 22.27, 20.59, 14.12. MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₂₀H₃₅N₃O 333.53; found: 333.40.

2-(4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (8f)

C₁₈H₂₆N₂O₂ MW=302.20

Following general procedure 5 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (550 mg, 2.6mmol) and allypiperazine (1.73 mL, 984 mg, 7.8 mmol),) 2-(4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one 8f (451 mg, 57% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.00 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 6.98-6.63 (m, 2H), 5.90 (ddt, J=16.9, 10.2, 6.6 Hz, 1H), 5.29-5.07 (m, 2H), 4.66 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.77 (s, 2H), 3.06 (dt, J=6.7, 1.2 Hz, 2H), 2.63 (d, J=30.0 Hz, 7H), 1.38 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 5H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.68, 162.29, 133.29, 130.50, 119.73, 115.15, 70.20, 63.89, 61.61, 61.41, 52.96, 52.64, 21.96. MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₁₈H₂₆N₂O₂ 302.20; found: 302.80.

N-(2-(4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethyl)butan-1-amine (9f)

C₂₂H₃₇N₃O MW=359.56

Following general procedure 6 with 2-(4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one 8f (150 mg, 0.49 mmol), N-(2-(4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethyl)butan-1-amine 9f (51 mg, 28% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 2-(4-allylpiperazin-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one, was also obtained (52 mg, 35% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 1:1.2.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.35 (d, J=8.3 Hz, 2H), 6.92 (d, J=8.2 Hz, 2H), 5.97 - 5.73 (m, 1H), 4.56 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 4.30-3.90 (m, 1H), 3.43-3.26 (m, 2H), 3.24-3.01 (m, 2H), 1.66 (dt, J=22.7, 7.3 Hz, 3H), 1.34 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 7H), 0.88 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 159.18, 129.71, 123.65, 122.59, 116.59, 70.12, 60.64, 60.38, 59.89, 52.28, 51.65, 45.42, 28.31, 22.04, 22.02, 19.90, 13.59. MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₂₂H₃₇N₃O 359.56; found: 360.83.

1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one (8g)

C₂₃H₃₀N₂O₃ MW=382.50

Following general procedure 5 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (300 mg, 1.4mmol) and 1-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazine (872 mg, 4.2 mmol), 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one 8g (522 mg, 91% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.98 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 2H), 7.24 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 6.88 (dd, J=13.8, 8.7 Hz, 4H), 4.65 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.80 (s, 3H), 3.75 (s, 2H), 3.49 (s, 2H), 2.77-2.31 (m, 8H), 2.05 (s, 2H), 1.37 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.96, 162.15, 158.85, 130.54, 129.85, 128.81, 115.08, 113.67, 70.15, 64.36, 62.43, 60.46, 55.32, 53.56, 52.82, 21.99, 21.13, 14.28. MS (m/z): [MH]+ calculated for C₂₃H₃₀N₂O₃ 382.50; found: 382.66.

N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethyl)butan-1-amine (9g)

C₂₇H₄₁N₃O₂ MW=439.64

Following general procedure 2 with 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one 8g (100 mg, 0.26 mmol), N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethyl)butan-1-amine 9g (9 mg, 8% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(4-(4-methoxybenzyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one, was also obtained (32 mg, 32% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 1:4.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.48-7.17 (m, 4H), 7.07-6.56 (m, 4H), 4.59-4.54 (m, 2H), 3.94 (dd, J=11.7, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 3.82 (s, 3H), 3.66 (s, 1H), 3.02 (t, J=12.5 Hz, 2H), 2.91-2.46 (m, 8H), 1.65 (td, J=17.8, 16.1, 8.2 Hz, 3H), 1.35 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 9H), 1.28 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 1H), 0.94-0.85 (m, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 158.90, 131.07, 129.52, 116.49, 114.06, 70.14, 61.95, 59.80, 55.43, 52.57, 45.62, 29.12, 22.12, 20.06, 13.70. MS (m/z) [MH]+ calculated for C₂₇H₄₁N₃O₂ 439.64; found: 439.55.

1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(piperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one (8h)

C₁₅H₂₂N₂O₂ MW=262.17

Following general procedure 5 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (550 mg, 2.6 mmol) and piperazine (668 mg, 7.8mmol), 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(piperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one 8h (404 mg, 59% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.11-7.76 (m, 2H), 6.91 (d, J=9.0 Hz, 2H), 4.67 (ddt, J=12.2, 8.5, 4.3 Hz, 1H), 3.95-3.69 (m, 2H), 3.29-2.79 (m, 4H), 2.59 (dd, J=7.4, 3.0 Hz, 4H), 2.27-1.61 (m, 2H), 1.39 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 194.94, 162.34, 130.54, 128.54, 115.19, 70.22, 64.39, 53.69, 45.34, 22.15, 21.97. MS (m/z) [MH]+ calculated for C₁₅H₂₂N₂O₂ 262.17; found 262.63.

N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(piperazin-1-yl)ethyl)butan-1-amine (9h)

C₁₉H₃₃N₃O MW=319.26

Following general procedure 2 with 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(piperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one 8h (150 mg, 0.57 mmol), N-(1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(piperazin-1-yl)ethyl)butan-1-amine 9h (6 mg, 3% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)-2-(piperazin-1-yl)ethan-1-one, was also obtained (37 mg, 25% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 1:7.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.31 (d, J=9.1 Hz, 2H), 6.88 (d, J=8.6 Hz, 2H), 4.55 (p, J=6.1 Hz, 1H), 3.84-3.60 (m, 1H), 2.90-2.65 (m, 3H), 2.65-2.31 (m, 5H), 1.53 (q, J=7.3 Hz, 2H), 1.36 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 6H), 0.90 (t, J=7.3 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 157.66, 128.79, 116.00, 70.02, 59.36, 52.52, 46.97, 45.10, 31.37, 22.24, 20.51, 14.02. MS (m/z) [MH]+ calculated for C₁₉H₃₃N₃O 319.26; found 319.64.

2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (8i)

C₁₄H₁₆N₂O₂ MW=244.29

Following general procedure 5 with 2-chloro-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (500 mg, 2.4mmol) and imidazole (480 mg, 7.1 mmol), 2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one 8i (160 mg, 27% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 8.07-7.74 (m, 2H), 7.54 (s, 1H), 7.16 (s, 1H), 7.04-6.73 (m, 3H), 4.70 (p, J=6.0 Hz, 1H), 1.41 (d, J=6.1 Hz, 6H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 190.00, 163.14, 130.51, 126.84, 120.44, 115.71, 70.56, 52.22, 21.99. MS (m/z) [MH]+ calculated for C₁₄H₁₆N₂O₂ 244.29; found: 244.60.

N-(2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethyl)butan-1-amine (9i)

C₁₈H₂₇N₃O MW=301.43

Following general procedure 6 with 2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one (150 mg, 0.61 mmol) 8i, N-(2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethyl)butan-1-amine 9i (9 mg, 5% yield) was obtained as a yellow oil. Remaining starting material, 2-(1H-imidazol-1-yl)-1-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one, was also obtained (11 mg, 7% yield), giving an amine/ketone ratio of 1:1.5.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, Chloroform-d) δ 7.32 (s, 2H), 7.14 (d, J=7.5 Hz, 2H), 6.98 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 2H), 6.93-6.70 (m, 2H), 4.68-4.43 (m, 1H), 4.14 (td, J=13.1, 6.5 Hz, 2H), 3.90 (s, 1H), 2.47 (ddt, J=18.6, 11.8, 5.3 Hz, 2H), 1.57-1.30 (m, 10H), 0.87 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H). ¹³C NMR (101 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 157.86, 152.78, 145.44, 138.51, 131.92, 128.28, 116.17, 70.06, 47.41, 32.20, 22.20, 20.45, 14.05. MS (m/z) [MH]+ calculated for C₁₈H₂₇N₃O 301.43; found: 301.62.

Metabolite Profiling

2 million HT-1080 cells were seeded in 10 cm culture dishes. The next day, cells were treated with 5 μg/mL erastin and incubated for 5 hours before metabolite extraction. 4 mL of cold 80% methanol was added to the cell monolayer to extract polar metabolites using a cell scraper. The cell lysate/methanol mixture was transferred to a 15 mL tube and centrifuged at 2,000×g at 4° C. for 10 minutes to pellet debris and proteins. The supernatant was transferred to a new tube and stored at −80° C. for liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. For lipid extract preparation, 3 mL of cold 100% isopropanol was added to the cell monolayer to scrape out cells. The resulting cell lysate/isopropanol mixture was transferred to a new 15 mL tube and centrifuged at 2,000×g at 4° C. for 10 minutes. The cleared supernatant was transferred to a new tube and stored at −20° C. for LC-MS/MS analysis.

RNAi Experiments

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) pools targeting ALOX15B and ALOXE3 were obtained from Dharmacon Technologies (Lafayette, Colo.). On the day of reverse-transfection, a cocktail of 1 mL of Opti-MEM (Invitrogen Corp., Carlsbad, Calif.), 6 μL of Lipofectamine RNAiMAX (Invitrogen), and 5 μL of 10 μM siRNA were prepared and transferred to each well of a 6-well plate. The 6-well plate was put in the tissue culture incubator for 20 minutes to allow the formation of transfection mixture. While the complex was forming, HT-1080 cells were trypsinized and the cell number was determined using ViCell (Trypan Blue). 200,000 cells were prepared in 1 mL of growth media with 2× serum, and then, the cell suspension was transferred to each well containing 1 mL of the transfection mix. The 6-well plate was returned to the incubator and the culture grown for 2 days. Then, cells were trypsinized and reverse-transfected again for two additional days to ensure knockdown. After a second round of reverse transfection, cells were trypsinized and treated with lethal compounds to examine the effect of the knockdown on drug sensitivity. RNA was harvested from a population of cells for RT-qPCR analysis.

GSH Depletion Assay

2 million cells were seeded on 10 cm dishes. The next day, cells were treated with compounds to induce GSH depletion followed by harvesting to determine cell number. Two million live cells from each sample were transferred to new tubes, and centrifuged at 1,000 rpm at 4° C. for 5 minutes. The cell pellet was resuspended in 1 mL of PB buffer (10 mM sodium phosphate buffer, 1 mM EDTA, pH 7) and sonicated using 60 Joule energy. The lysate was centrifuged at 13,200 rpm at 4° C. for 10 minutes, and then the cleared lysate was used to determine the amount of GSH in the sample. The QuantiChrome glutathione assay kit (BioAssay Systems, cat# DIGT-250) was used and the product instructions were followed to determine GSH level.

Cell Lines

The 4 BJ-derived cell lines, HT-1080 cells, and U-2-OS cells were maintained as described previously (Yang et al., 2008b).

RSL Testing

In order to test whether BSO and other antioxidant targeting agents exhibit the RSL phenotype, 4 BJ-derived cell lines, BJeH, BJeHLT, BJeLR, and DRD, were cultured and treated with compounds in a 2-fold dilution series as described previously (Yang et al., 2008a). Cell viability was determined using alamar blue and percent growth inhibition computed as described previously (Id.).

Cell Images

Bright field and fluorescence images were obtained using an EVOS_(fl) fluorescence microscope.

Cellular ROS Assay Using Flow Cytometer

0.2 million cells were seeded in 6-well plates. The next day, culture media was replaced with 2 mL media containing 5 μM of CM-H₂DCF dye (Invitrogen, cat# C6827) and the culture was returned to the tissue culture incubator for 20 minutes. Cells were harvested in 15 mL tubes and washed twice with PBS followed by resuspending in 500 μL of PBS. The cell suspension was filtered through 0.4 μm nylon mesh and subjected to the flow cytometer analysis to examine the amount of ROS within cells. A C6 flow cytometry system (BD Accuri cytometers, BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.) was used for the flow cytometer analysis. When cells were prepared for flow cytometric analysis, different fluorescence intensities in the unstained samples were observed each time, indicating that cells had different autofluorescence upon passage. In order to compensate for changes in autofluorescence, the difference between the median fluorescence values of CM-H₂DCF stained samples and unstained samples were taken, and then the difference was divided by the median autofluorescence. The normalized ROS level was determined in this way for BJeH, BJeHLT, and BJeLR cells on the same day. The experiment was repeated 8 times on 8 different days.

Generating Stable Cell Lines Expressing GFP-ALOX5

A cDNA of ALOX5 (GeneBank ID: BC130332.1) was cloned into a pBabe-puro vector to express GFP fused ALOX5 (N-terminal GFP fusion) in cells. The plasmid was transfected into PLAT-GP cells (Cell Biolabs Inc., cat# RV-103, San Diego, Calif.) along with a pVSV-G helper plasmid to produce retrovirus harboring the expression plasmid. 0.2 million target cells (BJeH, BJeHLT, BJeLR or HT-1080 cells) were seeded in 10 cm tissue culture dishes and incubated in the tissue culture incubator for 1 day. A frozen stock of retrovirus solution was thawed at 37° C. for 2 minutes, and polybrene (Sigma, cat.# H9268) was added at a final concentration of 8 μg/mL. Culture medium was replaced with virus/polybrene mix and the culture dish was incubated for two hours with rocking every 30 minutes. After 2 hours, 10 mL of growth media was added to culture dish, and the culture was incubated further for 2 days. Cell lines stably expressing GFP-ALOX5 protein were selected using 1.5 μg/mL puromycin and used for the GFP-ALOX5 translocation assay.

Lipid Peroxide Detection Using BODIPY-C11

Cells were treated with compounds, stained with 1 μM BODIPY-C11 (Invitrogen, cat.# D3861), and subjected to flow cytometric analysis to determine the level of plasma membrane oxidation as described in the cellular ROS assay.

Cell Death Rescue by ALOX Inhibitors and COX Inhibitor

Lethal compounds were added to HT-1080 cells in the presence or absence of ALOX or COX inhibitors in a 2-fold dilution series. The concentrations of the inhibitors are listed along with vendor information in Table 2. Cell viability was determined using alamar blue and percent growth inhibition calculated as described above.

RT-qPCR

Total RNA from cells was prepared using an RNeasy kit (Qiagen, Germantown, Md.), and was reverse-transcribed using a High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription kit (Life Technologies, Inc., Grand Island, N.Y.). The resulting cDNA samples were mixed with TaqMan® probes for ALOX5, ALOX12, ALOX12B, ALOX15, ALOX15B and ALOXE3 and arrayed on a 96-well plate in triplicate. Each plate was loaded onto ViiA7 Real-Time PCR system (Life Technologies) for qPCR. Comparative analysis (delta delta Ct analysis) was performed using ACTB (human actin B) Ct value as a control.

Metabolic Stability Test

The mouse liver microsome assay on erastin and PE was performed at Shanghai Medicilon Inc. (Shanghai, China).

Mice Study

Athymic nude mice (8 weeks, Charles River) were injected with 4 million HT-1080 cells subcutaneously (SC). The next day, 400 μL of vehicle (0.625% DMSO/99.375% HBSS, pH 2) or 40 mg/kg PE were delivered to the SC site where HT-1080 cells were injected. Two days later, the SC injection was repeated. Three days later, 3004 of vehicle or 30 mg/kg PE were administered to the mice through a tail vein. The tail vein injection was repeated three times more, once every other day, before the final tumor size was measured in both groups.

Due to its poor solubility, erastin was prepared in 100% PEG-400 and delivered to nude mice with the same protocol as PE before the tail vein injection. 100% PEG-400 was toxic to nude mice, which prevented injection of erastin through the tail vein. Instead, erastin was injected through the SC route using the same schedule as PE until the tumor size was measured.

Statistics

To determine the significance between two groups, indicated in the figures by asterisks, comparisons were made using a Student's t-test, performed by Prism 5 software.

Example 2 Metabolite Profiling Reveals GSH Depletion as a Key Event Upon Erastin Treatment

HT-1080 fibrosarcoma cells were treated with vehicle only or vehicle plus erastin, and polar metabolites and lipid samples extracted. The metabolite extract was subjected to LC-MS/MS analysis to determine the quantity of each metabolite in each sample. A total of 149 polar metabolites and 115 lipids were detected under these conditions (Table 5), and the fold change in each metabolite between vehicle-treated and erastin-treated sample was calculated (FIG. 1a ).

TABLE 5 Changes in cellular metabolites upon erastin treatment. log2 Metabolites Erastin/DMSO (Erastin/DMSO) glutathione reduced 0.007019166 −7.154484568 alpha-glycerophosphocholine 0.219393245 −2.188408988 glutathione oxidized 0.323487361 −1.628218751 phosphocholine 0.525200601 −0.929059527 isomer_of_erythrose-4-phosphate 0.588678149 −0.764449018 glucuronate 0.609972908 −0.713182928 C36:1 PC 0.628637882 −0.669698883 C36:0 PC 0.650147385 −0.621161287 phosphotyrosine 0.65325359 −0.614284946 2'-deoxyadenosine 0.654860207 −0.610741128 C38:3 PC 0.65972078 −0.600072546 2-aminodipate 0.664362669 −0.589957085 dUMP 0.678665746 −0.559226895 C38:4 PC 0.681438891 −0.553343807 dTMP 0.698450125 −0.517770996 5-HIAA 0.728281128 −0.457432634 alpha-glycerophosphate 0.755601314 −0.404302884 C22:6 CE 0.784710293 −0.349767971 C20:3 CE 0.786386118 −0.346690241 C14:0 CE 0.78965845 −0.340699315 indoxylsulfate 0.79128023 −0.337739383 serotonin 0.792396909 −0.335704842 C32:0 PC 0.794762338 −0.331404587 N-carbomoyl-beta-alanine 0.795767915 −0.329580363 C34:0 PC 0.797548892 −0.326355132 carnitine 0.801997316 −0.318330687 NADH 0.805068432 −0.312816675 triiodothyronine 0.80664102 −0.310001323 C56:3 TAG 0.810310731 −0.303452849 choline 0.813880917 −0.297110374 taurine 0.825870795 −0.276012 acetylcholine 0.830711332 −0.26758086 kynurenic acid 0.832177154 −0.265037413 C22:1 SM 0.837383793 −0.256039099 C38:2 PC 0.840512319 −0.25065913 C20:5 CE 0.840682397 −0.250367231 OH-phenylpyruvate 0.844239212 −0.244276257 GDP 0.849679699 −0.235008999 ADMA 0.858524915 −0.220068092 XMP 0.859888851 −0.217777906 C54:1 TAG 0.862815121 −0.212876634 creatine 0.867524293 −0.205023937 C54:2 TAG 0.869557029 −0.201647447 5-hydroxytryptophan 0.872515609 −0.196747154 C36:2 PC 0.872862715 −0.196173331 C34:1 DAG 0.882253588 −0.180734703 C38:5 PC 0.883571889 −0.178580575 lactate 0.883979768 −0.177914745 C54:10 TAG 0.885067787 −0.17614014 thyroxine 0.885869026 −0.17483468 cytosine 0.886296508 −0.174138665 C24:1 SM 0.893338826 −0.16272063 C30:0 PC 0.895377526 −0.159431988 C52:1 TAG 0.897011796 −0.156801137 ADMA/SDMA 0.898537382 −0.154349569 C34:1 PC 0.899331136 −0.153075677 UDP-galactose/UD-glucose 0.900255041 −0.151594322 C36:4 PC 0.902687749 −0.147701067 cotinine 0.903721441 −0.146049944 C54:8 TAG 0.906711066 −0.141285202 C56:10 TAG 0.912891825 −0.13148418 C20:4 CE 0.91405051 −0.129654204 NAD 0.915714934 −0.127029543 C36:2 DAG 0.916299532 −0.126108813 dCMP 0.918389857 −0.122821386 C18:1 CE 0.919786047 −0.120629782 C18:1 SM 0.924983033 −0.112501192 C36:3 PC 0.925067537 −0.112369398 C18:3 CE 0.927653854 −0.108341519 niacinamide 0.928866408 −0.106456976 C16:1 CE 0.932056894 −0.101510073 C36:1 DAG 0.933434013 −0.099380057 dimethylglycine 0.933774768 −0.09885349 UDP-glucuronate 0.933907721 −0.09864809 C36:2 PE 0.93515925 −0.09671603 CMP 0.937603038 −0.092950851 thiamine 0.938498287 −0.091573984 sebacate 0.941865852 −0.086406501 C46:0 TAG 0.942410966 −0.085571768 C30:2 PC 0.946705557 −0.079012305 ornithine 0.948182209 −0.076763771 C18:2 CE 0.948348099 −0.076511386 maleate/3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate 0.94837736 −0.076466872 leucine 0.949707988 −0.074444106 SDMA 0.950466635 −0.073292111 C56:4 TAG 0.950487716 −0.073260113 allantoin 0.951233865 −0.072128018 histamine 0.952625653 −0.070018696 isoleucine 0.952635304 −0.070004079 betaine 0.952796343 −0.069760219 C34:0 PE 0.953254544 −0.069066592 C36:0 PE 0.95381856 −0.068213239 C22:0 SM 0.959998728 −0.058895601 ADP 0.961640039 −0.05643113 C24:0 SM 0.962145378 −0.055673196 C50:0 TAG 0.962510978 −0.0551251 salicylurate 0.963666252 −0.053394512 C16:0 CE 0.964279781 −0.052476297 F1P 0.96524394 −0.051034503 lysine 0.9653934 −0.050811131 carnosine 0.965734713 −0.050301159 C44:0 TAG 0.968298141 −0.04647677 C54:3 TAG 0.969176301 −0.045168967 methionine 0.970222491 −0.043612471 C56:2 TAG 0.970268868 −0.043543512 C38:6 PC 0.970772017 −0.042795573 sorbitol 0.970919029 −0.042577109 glucose 0.971664149 −0.041470356 creatinine 0.972042775 −0.040908293 glycine 0.972285702 −0.040547789 citrate 0.9739683 −0.038053277 histidine 0.977875379 −0.032277475 xanthosine 0.98003751 −0.029091127 C16:1 SM 0.980789892 −0.027983984 4-hydroxybenzoate 0.981508946 −0.026926678 hypoxanthine 0.981943367 −0.026288275 C34:2 PE 0.982012323 −0.026186967 C32:0 PE 0.982068705 −0.026104136 tyrosine 0.982090761 −0.026071736 fumarate 0.9821554 −0.025976783 valine 0.982181785 −0.025938027 C38:4 PI 0.982255832 −0.025829266 phosphoglycerate 0.984827133 −0.022057585 C56:9 TAG 0.986500661 −0.019608077 arginine 0.98662075 −0.019432465 alpha-ketoglutarate 0.98674206 −0.019255089 NMMA 0.988556175 −0.016605146 tryptophan 0.991129404 −0.012854663 threonine 0.99243953 −0.010948895 C36:1 PE 0.995288791 −0.006812899 C52:2 TAG 0.996404827 −0.005196084 glycocholate 0.997470442 −0.003654004 C32:1 PC 0.999765803 −0.000337915 4-pyridoxate 1.000128453 0.000185307 UDP 1.002008092 0.00289416 suberate 1.003221833 0.004640651 phenylalanine 1.004872604 0.00701261 hippurate 1.005321858 0.007657461 C36:0 PI 1.006349047 0.009130783 succinate/methylmalonate 1.008198544 0.011779776 C18:0 CE 1.009518499 0.013667348 glucose/fructose/galactose 1.010633942 0.015260538 C50:1 TAG 1.011393801 0.016344841 C30:1 PC 1.013872124 0.019875703 glutamine 1.014636611 0.020963123 quinolinate 1.015210174 0.021778432 aspartate 1.017140543 0.024519037 C32:2 PE 1.017862786 0.025543091 C18:0 SM 1.017897199 0.025591866 urate 1.017972662 0.025698818 oxalate 1.018599015 0.026586227 glutamate 1.019332193 0.027624292 C36:2 PI 1.020645543 0.029481923 pimelate/3-methyladipate 1.021056242 0.030062336 C32:1 PE 1.023921785 0.034105516 hydroxyphenylacetate 1.024067694 0.034311085 malonate 1.025230038 0.035947654 xanthine 1.026812674 0.038173008 C16:0 SM 1.03011789 0.042809454 folate 1.032057885 0.045523889 citrulline 1.035673991 0.050569944 aconitate 1.036400242 0.051581258 C34:1 PE 1.040149897 0.056791452 kynurenine 1.040294446 0.056991928 C52:0 TAG 1.040694863 0.057547126 C58:6 TAG 1.047110675 0.066413937 C56:6 TAG 1.047483699 0.066927793 C34:2 PC 1.04850576 0.068334787 UMP 1.048921414 0.068906594 ribulose-5-P 1.050528526 0.071115337 isocitrate 1.051095653 0.071893965 dGMP 1.051722504 0.072754102 serine 1.053459932 0.075135443 glycodeoxycholate 1.053739818 0.075518692 C32:1 DAG 1.054515427 0.076580201 glycerol 1.058311744 0.081764661 C48:1 TAG 1.058553333 0.082093958 alanine 1.061199956 0.08569652 C14:0 SM 1.06154999 0.086172311 C56:7 TAG 1.061814078 0.086531175 C54:7 TAG 1.062074534 0.086885014 IMP 1.064629663 0.090351669 GMP 1.065877096 0.092041093 glycochenodeoxycholate 1.066841635 0.093346034 asparagine 1.069265793 0.096620515 AMP 1.071274609 0.099328346 C58:7 TAG 1.071364555 0.099449473 C50:2 TAG 1.073465707 0.102276104 nicotinate 1.085143298 0.11788557 C34:4 PC 1.085975817 0.118991978 proline 1.086372681 0.119519106 C34:2 DAG 1.088758408 0.122683861 cystamine 1.090375283 0.124824764 adipate 1.090949568 0.125584411 C36:3 DAG 1.091715359 0.126596754 proprionate 1.091955783 0.126914438 taurolithocholate 1.09332259 0.128719138 C48:0 TAG 1.098431827 0.135445333 cis/trans hydroxyproline 1.09933747 0.136634327 taurocholate 1.108372993 0.148443463 ribos-5-P 1.113413382 0.154989328 C58:8 TAG 1.117508568 0.160285893 C48:2 TAG 1.12096538 0.164741723 C52:3 TAG 1.123502729 0.168003629 G6P 1.133663732 0.180992771 C56:5 TAG 1.133971203 0.181384003 C34:3 PC 1.133988835 0.181406437 phenylacetylglycine 1.135117956 0.182842224 orotate 1.137904549 0.186379544 malate 1.143460137 0.193406072 PEP 1.146683618 0.197467392 taurodeoxycholate 1.167748017 0.223728996 C46:1 TAG 1.170876947 0.227589464 GABA 1.172608132 0.229720966 phosphocreatine 1.172975218 0.230172534 C34:1 PI 1.17332592 0.230603812 C58:9 TAG 1.175775533 0.233612662 C54:4 TAG 1.177998885 0.236338174 C56:8 TAG 1.178339088 0.23675476 taurochenodeoxycholate 1.180889408 0.23987386 glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate 1.191624534 0.252929733 pantothenate 1.19447216 0.256373229 ascorbate 1.196279953 0.258555047 C32:2 PC 1.218164138 0.284708538 trimethylamine-N-oxide 1.222211727 0.289494228 DHAP 1.227273271 0.295456523 5-HIAA 1.230853823 0.299659437 C50:3 TAG 1.241015719 0.31152139 Anthranilic acid 1.242119129 0.312803546 adenine 1.25362125 0.326101541 thymine 1.257201762 0.330216199 C32:1 PI 1.261000876 0.334569278 cystathionine 1.262988673 0.336841701 cAMP 1.266090474 0.340380502 C54:6 TAG 1.266720903 0.341098691 C50:5 TAG 1.277049931 0.352814934 C52:5 TAG 1.27898172 0.354995644 Pyruvate 1.2826948 0.359177941 C34:2 PI 1.286345341 0.36327801 F16DP/F26DP/G16DP 1.302764118 0.38157589 C52:4 TAG 1.305344833 0.384430974 C54:5 TAG 1.315083914 0.395154859 C54:9 TAG 1.331382859 0.412925499 Adenosine 1.375972395 0.460451527 C36:4 PI 1.394818145 0.480077037 Thymidine 1.402373491 0.48787063 Sucrose 1.408292599 0.493947112 C48:3 TAG 1.520115971 0.604181392 C46:2 TAG 1.541893629 0.624703241 C52:6 TAG 1.601679465 0.679585459 C44:1 TAG 1.638829022 0.712665346 C50:4 TAG 1.681973845 0.750155272 2'-deoxycytidine 1.737193761 0.796758677 Inosine 1.866736341 0.900518175 C18:0 LPC 3.335435273 1.737875045 C14:0 LPC 3.625332845 1.858113456 C18:1 LPC 3.743522467 1.904396413 C16:0 LPC 3.818006928 1.932819721 Uridine 4.368573078 2.127162124 Guanosine 4.509507284 2.172969811 C16:1 LPC 5.385771704 2.429153077 Cytidine 6.078961728 2.603824936 C22:6 LPC 8.455937356 3.079964689 C20:4 LPC 8.518404873 3.090583302

The name and fold change of the metabolites examined in FIG. 1a are listed here. The mean value of the abundance of each metabolite was calculated from four independent samples in each drug treatment condition and used to determine the fold change between erastin treatment and DMSO (the vehicle) treatment.

It was found that both reduced glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) were depleted significantly upon erastin treatment, whereas the level of lysophosphatidyl choline (lyso-PC) was increased. This was intriguing, because lyso-PC has been reported to increase the permeability of cell membranes and to induce cell death involving oxidative species, which is rescued by antioxidants in fibroblasts (Colles et al., 2000). The effects of purified lyso-PC on erastin-induced cell death were tested in HT-1080 cells. The results show that lyso-PC modestly sensitized cells to erastin-induced cell death (FIG. 5a and b ), suggesting that lyso-PC contributes to erastin's lethality. However, lyso-PC did not show differential cytotoxicity between BJeH (BJ-TERT) and BJeLR (BJ-TERT/LT/ST/HRAS^(V12)) engineered cells (Yang et al., 2008a), suggesting that generation of lyso-PC is not sufficient to cause RAS synthetic lethality (FIG. 5c ).

The significant depletion of GSH/GSSG, on the other hand, was intriguing, because erastin treatment induces the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in an oxidative form of cell death (Yagoda et al., 2007). GSH/GSSG constitutes a major cellular antioxidant system and provides reducing power to remove oxidative species. Three cell lines were treated with erastin, their GSH levels were determined using Ellman's reagent, and a dose-dependent, GSH-depleting effect of erastin was confirmed (FIG. 1b and FIG. 5d ). Because GSH is a major antioxidant produced by cells, its depletion should make cells more sensitive to oxidative stress. Thus, U-2 OS cells were treated with tert-butylhydroperoxide (TBHP) in the presence of erastin, and observed that erastin made cells more sensitive to TBHP-induced cell death (FIG. 5e ). Indeed, GSH depletion by erastin is necessary for erastin's lethality, because supplementing the culture medium with GSH itself or N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC), a precursor of GSH, rescued cells from erastin lethality (FIGS. 5f and 5g ).

Whether the GSH-depleting activity of erastin was essential for its lethality was further tested. A synthetic route to access multiple erastin analogs was established, and these analogs were tested for potency and selectivity in BJ-derived tumorigenic cells (FIG. 1c ). Three compounds (MEII, PE, AE) retained the RSL phenotype, whereas the other three (A8, PYR, dMK) did not display lethality (FIG. 1c ). In addition, the following analogs were also made and tested for potency and selectivity.

Compound Selectivitey No. R₁ = R₂ = R₃ = EC₅₀ score 51

H H 1.17 μM 4 52 H

H 4.7 μM 3.3 40 H H

0.13 μM 9.2 * selectivity score = EC₅₀ (BJeH)/EC₅₀ (BJeLR)

Because changes at position R₃ of structure (100) above improved potency and selectivity, additional analogs were created and tested.

Compound EC₅₀ (BJeLR) Selectivity score erastin 1.78 μM 4.7 15 1.68 μM 4.1 40 0.13 μM 9.2 17 0.90 μM 7.3 18 0.14 μM 5.9 19 0.26 μM 5.1 60 0.60 μM 3.8 21 0.36 μM 3.7 22 2.30 μM 3.3 23 1.20 μM 2.8 24 2.10 μM 2.5

Changes at other positions other than R₃ of structure (100) above generally lowered the selectivity and potency, as demonstrated by the testing of the following analogs.

Compound EC₅₀ ( BJELR) Selectivity Score erastin 1.8 μM 4.7  1a 4.8 μM 3.5  2 >10 μM N/A  3 >10 μM N/A  4 0.9 μM >25.0  5 >10 μM N/A  6 2.7 μM 3.8  7 3.7 μM 4.5  8 4.4 μM 2.4  9 0.47 μM 6.3 11 2.0 μM 6.8

Of these analogs, six analogs (MEII (Compound 40), PE (Compound 30), AE (Compound 50), A8, PYR, and dMK) were tested along with erastin in HT-1080 cells, and the relationship between the GSH-depleting activity and the lethality of each analog was examined (FIG. 1d ). As set forth above, three compounds (MEII, PE, AE) retained the RSL phenotype, whereas the other three (A8, PYR, dMK) did not display lethality (FIG. 1c ). Buthioninesulfoximine (BSO) was used as a positive control for GSH depletion. BSO is an irreversible inhibitor of γ-glutamyl cysteine synthetase, which catalyzes the first step in glutathione synthesis, and has been widely used for depleting GSH in a variety of experimental conditions. Active analogs of erastin depleted cellular GSH more effectively than inactive analogs of erastin (FIG. 1d ), which further suggested that the GSH-depleting activity of erastin is necessary for erastin-induced cell death.

The inventors reasoned that if GSH depletion was sufficient for erastin lethality, then GSH depletion by other reagents should phenocopy erastin's selective lethality in the four BJ-cell line system, which consists of isogenic cell lines (two with and two without oncogenic-HRAS), through which RSLs such as erastin were discovered (Dolma et al., 2003). When the four BJ-derived cells were treated with BSO, an RSL phenotype was observed (FIG. 1e ), suggesting that GSH depletion by erastin is sufficient for its oncogenic-RAS-selective lethality.

The cell death pathways activated by erastin and BSO appeared to be similar, as assessed by profiling a panel of cell death inhibitors against each compound in an adaptation of the recently reported modulatory profiling strategy (FIG. 1f ) (Wolpaw et al., 2011). These results indicated that erastin likely acts through a dual targeting mechanism to induce synthetic lethality. First, it binds and perturbs mitochondrial VDACs as reported (Kumar et al., 2012), and second, it depletes GSH through preventing cystine uptake via inhibition of system xc⁻ (Dixon et al., 2012). Both knockdown of VDAC2/3 (Kumar et al., 2012) and supplementation of GSH (FIG. 5g ) were effective in rescuing cells from erastin's lethality.

Example 3 Targeting Antioxidants is Not Sufficient to Induce Ferroptosis

Because GSH depletion appeared to be critical for erastin lethality, how GSH depletion by erastin induces synthetic lethality with RAS was investigated. It has been hypothesized that most cancer cells, including RAS-transformed cells (Irani et al., 1997), are under high levels of oxidative stress (Szatrowski et al., 1991), which needs to be balanced by increasing the ROS-scavenging capacity to prevent oxidative damage (Hussain et al., 2003). In this model, targeting ROS-scavenging systems, including GSH, could cause an imbalance in this equilibrium, leading to oxidative cell death (Chuang et al., 2003; Trachootham et al., 2006). In order to test whether this simple hypothesis could explain erastin's selective lethality, basal ROS levels in the four BJ-derived engineered cell lines was examined using H₂DCF, a ROS sensor. It was confirmed that BJeLR cells have elevated ROS compared to BJeH and BJeHLT (BJ-TERT/LT/ST) cells. However, the level of increase varied among passages (FIG. 2a ). Initially, the inventors speculated that this finding could explain why GSH-depleting reagents such as erastin and BSO induce selective cell death in oncogenic-RAS expressing cells. If true, other anti-oxidant targeting reagents should also induce the RSL phenotype in these four BJ cell lines. To test this possibility, the four BJ cell lines were treated with a SOD inhibitor (DETC), a thiol-reactive reagent (DIA), a glutaredoxin inhibitor (IAA), a thiredoxinreductase inhibitor (DCNB), or a catalase inhibitor (ATZ) (FIG. 2b and FIG. 6). Erastin and BSO consistently showed an RSL phenotype in these four BJ cells; however, none of the other anti-oxidant targeting compounds displayed an RSL phenotype, which indicates that it is not possible to induce oncogenic-RAS-selective lethality by simply targeting the antioxidant system. Instead, these results suggested that unique biochemical changes downstream of GSH depletion were responsible for the synthetic lethality with oncogenic RAS.

One possibility for those results was that erastin selectively depletes GSH in tumor cells harboring oncogenic RAS. Thus, the degree of GSH depletion upon erastin treatment in the 4 BJ cell lines was examined (FIG. 2c ). It was found that these four BJ-derived cell lines contained varying amounts of basal GSH in the absence of any treatment, as reported previously (Kang et al., 1992), but were depleted of GSH to a similar low level upon erastin treatment. The concentration of erastin used in this experiment was lethal to BJeLR and DRD cells (containing oncogenic HRAS), but was not lethal to BJeH and BJeHLT cells (with wild-type RAS proteins) even upon prolonged incubation (FIG. 2b ). Therefore, the selective lethality among these cells was not caused by differential depletion of GSH or by differences in the basal level of GSH. Rather, downstream events occurring after GSH depletion were selectively activated in the sensitive cell lines.

Example 4 Selective Activation of ALOXs is Responsible for RSL Phenotype of Erastin

One consequence of GSH depletion could be activation of lipoxygenases (products of ALOX genes) (Li et al., 1997; Shornick et al., 1993). Lipoxygenases generate lipid peroxides from unsaturated lipids such as arachidonic acid, and use free iron as a cofactor. Oxidation of the catalytic iron is known to be an essential step in the enzyme reaction, making this a point of enzyme regulation. Depletion of GSH accelerates iron oxidation, leading to activation of lipoxygenases (Haeggstrom et al., 2011).

ALOX5 is one of the six human ALOX genes and plays a critical role in leukotriene synthesis. In the basal state, the ALOX5 protein remains in the nucleus; however, upon activation, it translocates to the nuclear membrane (Chen et al., 2001). In order to examine whether ALOX proteins are activated upon erastin treatment, GFP-tagged ALOX5 was expressed in the BJ-derived cell lines and whether erastin treatment had any effect on the location of GFP-ALOX5 was examined (FIG. 2d ). A positive control for GFP-ALOX5 translocation, treatment with ionomycin, induced localization of GFP-ALOX5 to the nuclear membrane in all BJ-derived cell lines (FIG. 7). In contrast, only in BJeLR cells (harboring HRAS^(G12V)) was GFP-ALOX5 translocated to the nuclear membrane upon erastin treatment (FIG. 2d ). These results suggested that activation of ALOX proteins after GSH depletion occurs selectively in oncogenic-RAS-expressing cells, leading to lipid peroxidation and oxidative cell death. GFP-ALOX5 was expressed in HT-1080 cells with oncogenic, mutant NRAS and the same translocation event upon erastin treatment was observed (FIG. 2e ). It is unlikely that erastin activates lipoxygenases through calcium upregulation, as ionomycin does, for multiple reasons. First, the kinetics of GFP-ALOX5 translocation in response to erastin differed from that seen upon ionomycin treatment (FIG. 2e ). Second, calcium chelators were not effective in suppressing erastin-induced cell death (Wolpaw et al., 2011). Third, flow cytometer analysis with Fluo-4, an intracellular calcium reporter, did not show any increase in calcium after erastin treatment (data not shown).

The three BJ-derived cell lines were stained with BODIPY-C11, a membrane targeted lipid ROS sensor, and fluorescence was monitored using flow cytometry to detect lipid peroxidation caused by the activation of ALOX proteins (FIG. 2f ). BJeLR cells (with oncogenic HRAS^(V12)) exhibited a stronger BODIPY-C11 fluorescence than BJeH and BJeHLT cells (with wild-type RAS proteins), which further supported the hypothesis that activation of ALOXs occurs selectively in cells expressing oncogenic RAS (FIG. 2f ). The activation of ALOX proteins was required for lethality, as five different ALOX inhibitors were able to prevent erastin-induced cell death (FIG. 2g ). Indomethacin, a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, was only minimally effective in suppressing erastin lethality, highlighting the importance of lipoxygenases, but not cyclooxygenases, in erastin-mediated cell death.

Example 5 RSL3 also Activates ALOX-Dependent Ferroptosis

The inventors examined whether GSH depletion and activation of lipoxygenases was applicable to RSL3, another oncogenic-RAS-selective lethal compound (Yang et al., 2008a), or whether this mechanism was unique to erastin. The cell death induced by erastin and RSL3 share common features, such as iron-, MEK-, and ROS-dependence; however, tumor cells had different responses to erastin and RSL3 in the presence of cobalt, TLCK, cycloheximide, and, N-acetyl-cysteine (FIG. 8). Importantly, RSL3 is not dependent on VDAC2/3 (Yang et al., 2008) or system xc− (Dixon et al., 2012), implying that a different initiating mechanism can converge on a similar form of ferroptotic cell death.

When cellular GSH levels during RSL3-induced cell death were examined, it was found that GSH remained unaffected by a lethal RSL3 dose in BJeLR cells, which was in sharp contrast to erastin's effect (FIG. 3a ). However, RSL3 caused GFP-ALOX5 translocation to the nuclear membrane in BJeLR cells, suggesting that activation of ALOX proteins could be a common lethal event between erastin and RSL3 (FIG. 3b ). As with erastin, five different ALOX inhibitors, but not a COX inhibitor, suppressed cell death induced by RSL3, reinforcing the importance of ALOX proteins in the lethal mechanism of both of these two compounds (FIG. 3c ). Furthermore, BODIPY-C11 staining demonstrated the generation of lipid peroxides in RSL3-treated cells (FIG. 3d ).

Example 6 Synthetic Lethality with RAS Occurs Through an ALOX-Dependent Pathway

In order to validate the critical role of ALOX proteins in inducing selective lethality, cellular lipoxygenase was activated by knocking down GPX4, which is a phospholipid hydroperoxidase (Imai et al., 2003) and known to counter the effects of lipoxygenases by reducing lipid hydroperoxides, but also to negatively regulate lipoxygenases through a feedback mechanism; i.e. lipid peroxides cause further activation of ALOXs (Imai et al., 2003). Deletion of Gpx4 in mice is embryonic lethal. However, mouse embryo fibroblasts (MEFs) from Gpx4^(+/−) mice have increased lipid peroxide levels compared to wild-type MEFs (Ran et al., 2003).

Knockdown of GPX4 caused an increase in the level of lipid peroxides, and induced cell death in HT-1080 cells (FIG. 3e and FIG. 9a ). Cell death induced by siGPX4 accompanied translocation of GFP-ALOX5 to the nuclear membrane, as was seen with erastin and RSL3 (FIG. 3f ). This translocation was specific to siGPX4, because cell death induced by a pool of siRNAs targeting multiple essential genes (siDeath) did not translocate GFP-ALOX5. Moreover, the cell death induced by siGPX4 was rescued by an iron chelator (DFOM), a MEK inhibitor (U0126), an antioxidant (Vit. E), and an ALOX inhibitor (ZIL), which suggested that GPX4 knockdown induced ferroptotic cell death (FIG. 3g ). Finally, siGPX4 induced selective cell death in BJeLR and DRD cells (with oncogenic HRAS), but not BJeH and BJeHLT cells (lacking oncogenic HRAS) (FIG. 3h and FIG. 9b ). In a separate study, cellular binding proteins for RSL3 were characterized using chemoproteomic approaches (data not shown). The unbiased search for RSL3-binding proteins identified GPX4 as the highest priority target. Taken together, these results indicate that GSH-depletion by erastin and GPX4 inhibition by RSL3 or siGPX4 are two mechanisms for activating lipoxygenases, leading to cell death involving oxidative lipid damage.

To determine the generality of these findings, lipid peroxidation levels and the degree of cell death suppression by ALOX inhibitors upon treatment of BJeLR cells or HT-1080 cells with other RSL compounds were examined. In a larger screening campaign to find additional RSL compounds, 14 RSLs were identified out of more than a million compounds tested (FIG. 10a ) (Weiwer et al., 2012; Yang et al., 2012). The RSL activity of these 14 compounds was confirmed in the four BJ-derived cell lines (FIG. 10b ). This four-BJ-cell-line testing has been productive in discovering genuine RSL compounds. For example, natural cancer cell lines with NRAS or KRAS mutations were sensitive to the RSL compounds, and knockdown of mutant RAS genes rescued cells from RSL-induced cell death (Yang et al., 2008a; Yagoda et al., 2007). Furthermore, there was a correlation between the sensitivity of erastin and phospho-ERK levels, a surrogate marker for RAS activation, in 12 natural cancer cell lines (Yagoda et al., 2007), highlighting the oncogenic RAS selectivity of RSL compounds in genuine tumor cell lines, despite the fact that they were identified from the four engineered BJ-derived cell lines.

The degree of structural similarity among these 14 RSL compounds, erastin and RSL3 was determined using the Tanimoto coefficient, in order to quantitatively define which of these 14 RSL compounds are simple analogs of each other. Most were structurally diverse, which led to the definition of 12 independent RSL groups, including erastin and RSL3 (FIG. 10c ). Ten structurally diverse and representative RSLs were chosen to use in subsequent experiments.

BJeLR cells treated with the 10 additional RSL compounds exhibited an increase in BODIPY-C11 fluorescence, indicating that lipid peroxides were generated (FIG. 11). 11 non-RSL lethal compounds with diverse lethal mechanisms were tested to see whether they induced lipid peroxide generation. These 11 lethal compounds were confirmed to be non-RSL compounds previously (Root et al., 2003). It was found that 10/11 of the non-RSL compounds did not generate lipid peroxides, implying a specificity of lipid peroxidation to RSL compound treatment (FIG. 11). Of note, phenylarsine oxide (PAO) increased the BODIPY-stained cell population, albeit significantly less than the RSL compounds. It is likely that the known ROS-generating activity of PAO oxidized the BODIPY-C11 dye (Fanelus, 2008).

In order to examine the requirement of ALOX proteins for the lethality of each compound, HT-1080 cells were treated with each lethal compound (RSLs and non-RSLs) in the presence or absence of baicalein (BAI) or zileuton (ZIL), the two ALOX inhibitors. Both ALOX inhibitors strongly suppressed cell death induced by all RSL compounds (FIG. 12). The rescuing effect of these ALOX inhibitors was specific to RSL compounds, because the ALOX inhibitors were not able to suppress cell death induced by eleven non-RSL compounds (FIG. 8). The degree of cell death suppression was quantified by calculating the normalized differences in the AUC (Area Under the Curve) of the compound alone curve and compound with zileuton curve. Combined with the BODIPY-C11 staining data, these results revealed that all RSL compounds are mechanistically distinct from the 11 non-RSL compounds (FIG. 4a ).

Next, GFP-ALOX5-expressing HT-1080 cells were treated with these non-RSL and RSL compounds and changes in the location of GFP-ALOX5 were monitored as a measure of ALOX protein activation. All RSL compounds induced translocation of GFP-ALOX5 to the nuclear membrane, whereas of the eleven different non-RSL compounds, only digoxin induced GFP-ALOX5 translocation (FIG. 4b and FIG. 13). Digoxin is known to elevate intracellular calcium (McGarry et al., 1993), which is likely to cause the translocation of GFP-ALOX5, similar to ionomycin. Note that ionomycin and digoxin are not RSL compounds and induce translocation of GFP-ALOX5 non-specifically in the BJ-derived cell lines (FIGS. 7 and 13). The results highlight the importance of selective ALOX activation for the induction of the RSL phenotype.

The suppression of RSL-induced cell death by lipoxygenase inhibitors implied that knocking down ALOX expression using RNA interference (RNAi) might rescue cells from RSL-induced cell death, if there is a lack of functional redundancy among ALOX genes. There are six ALOX genes in humans—ALOX5, ALOX12, ALOX12B, ALOX15, ALOX15B, and ALOXE3. These genes have different expression patterns among different tissues; therefore, which ALOX genes were expressed in the BJ cell lines and in HT-1080 cells were examined using qPCR. Of the six isoforms, ALOX15B and ALOXE3 were consistently expressed in these cell lines, whereas ALOX5, ALOX12, ALOX12B, and ALOX15 did not show consistent expression in the qPCR analysis (FIG. 14a ). Accordingly, pools of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) targeting ALOX15B and ALOXE3 were prepared, and the effect of each siRNA pool on the lethality of the RSL compounds was tested. The siRNA pools targeting ALOX15B and ALOXE3 were able to decrease their target mRNA levels by greater than 6-fold and 20-fold, respectively (FIG. 14b ). Knocking down ALOX15B prevented erastin-induced cell death, but sensitized cells to RSL3-induced cell death (FIG. 4c ). On the other hand, knockdown of ALOXE3 suppressed both erastin and RSL3-induced cell death (FIG. 4c ). When the experiment was expanded to 10 additional RSL compounds, siRNAs targeting ALOXE3 consistently suppressed cell death induced by all RSLs, demonstrating a critical role for ALOXE3 in inducing the RSL phenotype (FIG. 4c and FIG. 15). Moreover, ALOXE3 knockdown exerted minimal effect on cell death induced by 10 non-RSL compounds (FIG. 4c and FIG. 15). The effect of ALOXE3 knockdown was not as specific to RSL compounds as small molecule ALOX inhibitors. The differences in isoform specificity, and the different mechanisms of RNAi and small molecules, may explain these differences (Luo et al., 2012; Weiss et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2012).

Example 7 Erastin Analogs are Selective Against Cells Expressing HRAS, as Shown in Isogenic BJ Cell Lines and the HT-1080 Cell Line

The carbonyl erastin analogs were tested in 4 isogenic cell lines: HRAS^(G12V) overexpressing artificially transformed fibroblasts (BJeLR, BJeDRD) and non-transformed isogenic cells without mutant HRAS expression (BJeHLT, BJeH).

General Procedure: Generation of Concentration-Dependent Curve of Carbonyl Erastin Analogs

Empty 384-well plates were filled with 30 μL growth media, except for column 5, where 60 μL of compound solution (erastin analogs) was transferred. After transferring a solution containing carbonyl erastin analog compounds, 2-fold dilution series across columns 5 through 20 was made by transferring 30 μL of compound solution to the next column successively (16-point dilution series), with extensive mixing. Assay plates were prepared by seeding either BJ-derived cell lines or HT-1080 cells at 1,500 cells per well concentration in 36 μL growth medium. Cells in the assay plates were treated with compounds by transferring 4 μL volume from the compound plate. The final concentration of compound was typically 30 μM to 0.9 nM in this 16-point, 2-fold dilution series. Assay plates were returned to the culture incubator and maintained for 2 days before adding alamar blue. 10 μL of 50% alamar blue solution in cell growth media was transferred to the assay plates, which resulted in 10% final concentration alamar blue. Plates were incubated further for 16 hours to allow reduction of alamar blue, which results in the generation of red fluorescence. The fluorescence intensity was determined using a Victor 3 plate reader (Perkin Elmer) with a 535 nm excitation filter and a 590 nm emission filter.

Percent growth inhibition (% GI) was calculated from the following formula using the alamar blue fluorescence intensity values.

% GI=100*(1−(X−N)/(P−N))

X, cells treated with lethal compound; N, no cells—growth media only; P, no lethal compound—cells only.

The concentration-dependent curves were generated using Prism software. Percent growth inhibition, measured using alamar blue is shown. Error bars indicate one standard deviation of triplicate data.

The results are shown in FIG. 16 and in Table 6 below.

TABLE 6 IC₅₀ BJeLR Selectivity Analog (nM) (IC₅₀BJeH/IC₅₀BJeLR) Erastin 625 4.6 PE 300 3 AE 8 15 KE 65 15 FKE 51 8.3 MKE 427 5 MPKE 474 1.9 APKE 195 1.5 PMB-PKE 13 13 PKE 12 32 IKE 3 42

Using the same general procedure described for BJ cells, the human fibrosarcoma cell line, HT1080, was treated with AE, KE, FKE, TFKE, PE, IKE, PKE. The results are shown in FIG. 17 and in Table 7 below.

TABLE 7 Analog IC₅₀ HT1080 (nM) PE 1196 AE 39 KE 59 FKE 61 TFKE 178 PKE 550 IKE 314

Example 8 Metabolic Stability of Carbonyl Erastin Analogues in Mice Liver Microsomes General Procedure:—Assessment of Compound Half-Life in Liver Microsomes

Test compound (0.5 μ) was incubated at 37° C. for up to 45 minutes in 50 mM of potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) containing mouse liver microsomal proteins (0.5 mg/mL) and an NADPH generating system (0.34 mg/mL β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), 1.56 mg/mL glucose-6-phosphate, 1.2 units/mL glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase). At 0, 5, 15, 30 and 45 minute intervals an aliquot was taken and quenched with acetonitrile (ACN) containing internal standard. No-cofactor controls at 45 minutes were prepared. Following completion of the experimentation, the samples were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. The LC-MS/MS method was developed for each compound individually. The instruments used include Shimadzu HPLC, Applied Biosystem API4000 QTrap.

The half-life (t_(1/2)) is calculated using the following equation:

t _(1/2)=0.693/k

where, k is the elimination rate constant of test compounds obtained by fitting the data to the equation:

C=initial×exp(−k×t)

Intrinsic clearance (Clint) is calculated as liver clearance from the half-life using the following equation:

where:

rate=k/min

-   -   0.5 mg protein/mL incubation     -   52.5 mg protein/g liver

Results were reported as peak area ratios of analyte to internal standard. The intrinsic clearance (CLint) was determined from the first order elimination constant by non-linear regression. The results are shown in FIG. 18 and in Table 8 below.

TABLE 8 Half-life in liver Analog microsomes (min) PE 55 KE 3.8 FKE 4.7 MKE 23.4 APKE 4.2 PMB-PKE 3.4 PKE >90 IKE 79

As predicted, both the aldehyde analog (FIG. 18, AE) and the methyl ketone analog (FIG. 18, KE) were rapidly metabolized and had half-lives <5 minutes. Several other carbonyl erastin analogs (FIG. 18: FKE, MKE, APKE, PMB-PKE) displayed medium to poor metabolic stability. On the other hand, two carbonyl erastin analogues, piperazine ketone erastin (FIG. 18, PKE, T1/2>90 min) and imidazole ketone erastin (FIG. 18, IKE, T1/2=79 min) demonstrated exceptionally high metabolic stability that even surpassed that of piperazine erastin, which does not possess a carbonyl functionality (FIG. 18, PKE, T1/2=55 min).

In addition, we assessed the plasma stability and PK profile of IKE and PKE in mice. Stability of PKE and IKE in mouse plasma was determined by dissolving each compound in the mouse plasma at 500 ng/mL concentration followed by incubation at 37° C. Both PKE and IKE remained stable up until 120 minutes under this condition (Table 9, below). The pharmacokinetic profiles of PKE and IKE in vivo were determined by administering to adult mice (C57BL/6) 20 mg/kg PKE or 5 mg/kg IKE via a single IV bolus injection or a single oral gavage. Both PKE and IKE exhibited poor oral bioavailability (0.75% and 2.49% each), which suggested IP delivery of the compound should be used for drug efficacy studies.

Example 9 Carbonyl Erastin Analogues are Potent System xc− Inhibitors

Ten ketone erastin analogs were evaluated in a glutamate release assay, which reports on system xc− activity. Human astrocytoma cells (CCF-STTG1) were used, which contain the system xc−. Following a 2 hour incubation period, glutamate released into the medium was detected fluorometrically using glutamate oxidase, horseradish peroxidase and Amplex UltraRed. Dramatic improvement of the half-maximal inhibitory constants (10₅₀) for system xc− inhibition was observed for all ketone analogs, compared to erastin and PE (Table 9). Several analogs, such as MKE (Table 9, entry 7, IC₅₀=10 nM) and IKE (Table 9, entry 12, IC₅₀=30 nM) even had improved potency over aldehyde erastin (Table 9, entry 3, IC₅₀=60 nM).

TABLE 9

IC₅₀ glutamate En- Com- release try pound R (nM) 1 Erastin — 200 2 PE — 800 3 AE H 60 4 KE Me 30 5 FKE CH₂F 40 6 TFKE CF₃ 20 7 MKE

10 8 MPKE

300 9 APKE

10 10 PMB—PKE

4 11 PKE

100 12 IKE

30

Example 10 IKE Inhibits Tumor Growth in a Mouse Xenograft Tumor Model

To test our hypothesis that IKE represented a candidate of choice for in vivo studies, we treated xenograft tumors generated from BJeLR cells in nude mice and with IKE compared to vehicle or doxorubicin treatments (as a positive growth suppression control). After an 8 day study, consisting of seven once-daily doses of IKE, we observed tumors that were on average about one third of the size of vehicle-treated tumors (P=0.035), (FIG. 19a ). Comparing IKE to doxorubicin treatment, there was no significant difference (P=0.73). No overt toxicity was observed in either IKE or doxorubicin-treated mice throughout the study (as gauged by monitoring body weight, FIG. 20). To confirm that growth suppression caused by IKE was due to ferroptotic cell death, we looked at levels of expression of PTGS2, a gene expression marker of ferroptosis. We observed a three-fold average increase in expression of PTGS2 in IKE-treated mice relative to doxorubicin or vehicle-treated mice (FIG. 19b ). As a control, we also analyzed expression of CDKN1A, a marker of doxorubicin exposure, and found a 5-fold increase in expression relative to IKE-treated or vehicle-treated mice.

Example 11 Comparative Reactivities of Carbonyl Moities with n-butylamine

α-substituted ketones can form imines with lysine side chains. In order to define the structural requirements for facile imine formation, we compared the reactivity of aryl aldehydes and α-substituted aryl ketones towards a simple model of lysine side chain. Our idea was to use n-butyl amine to mimic the reactive side chain of lysine and determine whether this moiety could react with α-substituted ketones at 37° C. Reaction of aryl aldehyde 8a with n-butylamine in MeOH produced imine 9a with >90% conversion after 24 hours at 37° C. High conversion to the imine adduct were also obtained with methyl ketone 8b and α-fluoromethyl ketone 8c. We observed that when the methyl ketone was α-substituted with heterocycles, the formation of the imine adduct could still be observed, although the conversion was lower under these conditions.

We tested in total a set of 9 carbonyl-containing moieties after 24 hours at 37° C. Carbonyl derivatives 8a-i were reacted with n-butylamine in MeOH, and the imine adduct to starting material ratio (imine/SM) was measured after 24 hours by treating the mixture with NaBH3CN, and isolating the corresponding amine and SM. (Table 10). We found that α-substituted ketones could be used as an electrophile for imine formation, and the relative reactivity of each carbonyl moiety was determined.

TABLE 10 Imine/ SM Probe, X ratio 8a, X = H 10/1 8b, X = Me  3/1 8c, X = CH₂F  1/1

 1/1.2

 1/2.5

 1/1.2

 1/4

 1/7

 1/1.5

DOCUMENTS

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All documents cited in this application are hereby incorporated by reference as if recited in full herein.

Although illustrative embodiments of the present invention have been described herein, it should be understood that the invention is not limited to those described, and that various other changes or modifications may be made by one skilled in the art without departing from the scope or spirit of the invention. 

1. A compound according to formula (I):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; and R₃ is a halo atom; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 2. A compound according to claim 1 having the structure of formula (II):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; and R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 3. A compound according to claim 1 having the structure of formula (III):

wherein R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 4. A compound according to claim 1, which is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 5. A compound according to claim 1, which is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof, or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 6. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or diluent and a compound according to formula (I):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; and R₃ is a halo atom; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 7. A pharmaceutical composition according to claim 6, wherein the compound has the structure of formula (II):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; and R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 8. A pharmaceutical composition according to claim 6, wherein the compound has the structure of formula (III):

wherein R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₄alkyl or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 9. A pharmaceutical composition according to claim 6, wherein the compound has a structure that is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof, or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 10. A pharmaceutical composition according to claim 6, wherein the compound has a structure that is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 11. A method for treating or ameliorating the effects of a cancer comprising a cell that harbors an oncogenic RAS mutation, the method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to claim
 1. 12. A method for treating or ameliorating the effects of a cancer comprising a cell that harbors an oncogenic RAS mutation, the method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition according to claim
 6. 13. A method for treating or ameliorating the effects of a cancer comprising a cell that harbors an oncogenic RAS mutation, the method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound having a structure that is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 14. A method for modulating a lipoxygenase in a ferroptosis cell death pathway comprising contacting a cell with an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; and R₃ is a halo atom; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 15. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound has the structure of formula (II):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; and R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 16. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound has the structure of formula (III):

wherein R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 17. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound has a structure that is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof, or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 18. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound has a structure that is selected from the group consisting of:

and combinations thereof or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 19. The method according to claim 14, wherein the modulation comprises activation of one or more polypeptides encoded by ALOX genes.
 20. A method for depleting reduced glutathione (GSH) in a cell harboring an oncogenic RAS mutation comprising administering to the cell an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; and R₃ is a halo atom; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 21. A method of inhibiting system xc⁻ in a subject in need thereof comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; and R₃ is a halo atom; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 22. A method of selectively killing a cell having a Ras^(v12) mutation comprising contacting the cell with an effective amount of a compound having the structure of formula (I):

wherein: R₁ is selected from the group consisting of H, C₁₋₆alkyl, and CF₃, wherein each C₁₋₆alkyl may be optionally substituted with an atom or a group selected from the group consisting of a halogen atom, a saturated or unsaturated C₃₋₆-heterocycle and an amine, each heterocycle optionally substituted with an atom or group selected from the group consisting of C₁₋₄aliphatic, which C₁₋₄aliphatic may be optionally substituted with an C₁₋₄alkyl-aryl-O—C₁₋₄alkyl; R₂ is selected from the group consisting of H, halo, and C₁₋₆aliphatic; and R₃ is a halo atom; or an N-oxide, crystalline form, hydrate, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.
 23. A kit comprising a compound according to claim 1 together with instructions for the use of the compound.
 24. A kit comprising a pharmaceutical composition according to claim 6 together with instructions for the use of the pharmaceutical composition.
 25. A compound having the structure: 